Wong Yiu Kwong Kenji. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 189-204). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Acknowledgement --- p.i / Abstract --- p.ii / 摘要 --- p.iv / Contents --- p.vi / List of Figure --- p.xii / List of Table --- p.xvi / Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1. --- Vegetable oil production and their refining --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.1. --- Vegetable oil production and consumption --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.2. --- Vegetable oil refining steps --- p.2 / Chapter 1.2. --- Chemical refining vs. Physical refining --- p.3 / Chapter 1.2.1. --- Differences between chemical and physical refining --- p.3 / Chapter 1.2.2. --- Pros and Cons of the two refining practices --- p.4 / Chapter 1.2.3. --- Adoption criteria and popularity of refining methods --- p.6 / Chapter 1.3. --- Deodorizer distillate (DODc vs. DODp) --- p.7 / Chapter 1.3.1. --- Compositions of DODc and DODp --- p.7 / Chapter 1.3.1.1. --- Squalene --- p.9 / Chapter 1.3.1.2. --- Tocopherols --- p.10 / Chapter 1.3.1.3. --- Phytosterols --- p.12 / Chapter 1.3.2. --- Usages of DODc and DODp and purification of phytochemicals --- p.14 / Chapter 1.3.2.1. --- Concentration of tocopherols and phytosterols --- p.15 / Chapter 1.3.2.2. --- Purification of tocopherols and phytosterols --- p.18 / Chapter 1.3.3. --- Alternative usage of DODp --- p.20 / Chapter 1.4. --- Usages of fatty acid mono-alkyl esters --- p.20 / Chapter 1.4.1. --- As intermediate for Bio-surfactants --- p.21 / Chapter 1.4.2. --- Bio-lubricants --- p.21 / Chapter 1.4.3. --- Biodiesel --- p.22 / Chapter 1.5. --- Production of biodiesel and its advantages and disadvantages --- p.23 / Chapter 1.5.1. --- Production of biodiesel --- p.23 / Chapter 1.5.1.1. --- Use of catalyst --- p.25 / Chapter 1.5.1.2. --- "Molar ratios between methanol, sample and catalyst" --- p.26 / Chapter 1.5.1.3. --- Temperature and pressure --- p.27 / Chapter 1.5.1.4. --- Biodiesel purification --- p.27 / Chapter 1.5.2. --- Pros and Cons of using biodiesel --- p.27 / Chapter 1.5.3. --- Sources of Biodiesel production --- p.29 / Chapter 1.6. --- Proposed strategy --- p.33 / Chapter 1.6.1. --- Summary of the literatures reviewed --- p.33 / Chapter 1.6.2. --- Hypothesis making --- p.34 / Chapter 1.6.3. --- Aim and objectives --- p.34 / Chapter 1.6.4. --- Significance of study --- p.34 / Chapter 1.6.5. --- Study scheme --- p.35 / Chapter 2. --- Methodology --- p.36 / Chapter 2.1. --- Characterization of physically refined Deodorizer Distillate (DODp) --- p.36 / Chapter 2.1.1. --- Collection & storage of DODp --- p.36 / Chapter 2.1.2. --- Determination of fatty acids composition --- p.36 / Chapter 2.1.3. --- Determination of acid number (ASTM D 664) --- p.37 / Chapter 2.1.4. --- Determination of free fatty acid contents --- p.38 / Chapter 2.1.5. --- Determination of unsaponifiable matter content --- p.38 / Chapter 2.1.6. --- "Determination of squalene, tocopherol and phytosterol contents." --- p.39 / Chapter 2.1.7. --- Deduction of natural glyceride contents --- p.40 / Chapter 2.1.8. --- "Other physical, chemical and biological analyses" --- p.40 / Chapter 2.1.8.1. --- Elemental analysis --- p.40 / Chapter 2.1.8.2. --- Nitrogen --- p.41 / Chapter 2.1.8.3. --- Water and volatile matter content --- p.41 / Chapter 2.1.8.4. --- Melting point and specific gravity --- p.41 / Chapter 2.1.8.5. --- Microbial counts --- p.42 / Chapter 2.2. --- Production of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) - Protocol A --- p.42 / Chapter 2.2.1. --- Optimization of Esterification --- p.42 / Chapter 2.2.1.1. --- Molar ratio of methanol: DODp --- p.43 / Chapter 2.2.1.2. --- Molar ratio of DODp: sulfuric acid --- p.43 / Chapter 2.2.1.3. --- Reaction temperature --- p.44 / Chapter 2.2.2. --- Optimization of Molecular Distillation --- p.44 / Chapter 2.2.2.1. --- Feed rate --- p.45 / Chapter 2.2.2.2. --- Distillation temperature --- p.45 / Chapter 2.2.2.3. --- Speed of rotary blade --- p.45 / Chapter 2.2.3. --- Crystallization --- p.46 / Chapter 2.3. --- Production of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) - Protocol B --- p.46 / Chapter 2.3.1. --- Optimization of Saponification --- p.47 / Chapter 2.3.1.1. --- Saponification number --- p.47 / Chapter 2.3.1.2. --- Saponification --- p.47 / Chapter 2.3.2. --- Extraction of unsaponifiable matter --- p.48 / Chapter 2.3.3. --- Acidification --- p.49 / Chapter 2.3.4. --- Esterification --- p.49 / Chapter 2.3.5. --- Hot water washing --- p.49 / Chapter 2.3.6. --- Crystallization --- p.49 / Chapter 2.4. --- Quantity and quality assessments of FAMEs --- p.50 / Chapter 2.4.1. --- Determination of purity and yield of FAMEs --- p.50 / Chapter 2.4.2. --- Quality of FAMEs: Biodiesel Specifications in USA --- p.50 / Chapter 2.4.2.1. --- Sulfated Ash (ASTM D 874) --- p.50 / Chapter 2.4.2.2. --- Copper strip corrosion test (ASTM D 130) --- p.51 / Chapter 2.4.2.3. --- Water and Sediment (ASTM D 2709) --- p.52 / Chapter 2.4.2.4. --- Conradson Carbon Residue of Petroleum Products (ASTM D 189) --- p.52 / Chapter 2.4.2.5. --- Determination of Free and Total Glycerine in B-100 Biodiesel Methyl Esters By Gas Chromatography (ASTM D 6584) --- p.53 / Chapter 2.4.2.6. --- Flash point (modified from ASTM D 93) --- p.54 / Chapter 2.4.2.7. --- Determination of Additive Elements in Lubricating Oils by Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ASTM D 4951) --- p.54 / Chapter 2.4.2.8. --- Kinematic Viscosity --- p.55 / Chapter 2.4.2.9. --- "Cetane index, Cloud Point and Distillation Temperature (ASTM D 613, ASTM D 2500 and ASTM D 90)" --- p.55 / Chapter 2.4.3. --- Toxicity assays of FAMEs --- p.55 / Chapter 2.4.3.1. --- Acute toxicity to mice --- p.56 / Chapter 2.4.3.2. --- Seed germination test --- p.56 / Chapter 2.4.3.3. --- Acute toxicity to aquatic invertebrate --- p.56 / Chapter 2.5. --- Quantity and quality assessments of phytochemical products --- p.57 / Chapter 2.5.1. --- Determination of purity and yield of phytochemicals in phytosterol and desterolized fractions --- p.57 / Chapter 2.5.2. --- Antioxidants activity of desterolized fraction --- p.58 / Chapter 2.5.2.1. --- ABTS scavenging activity --- p.58 / Chapter 2.5.2.2. --- Free radical scavenging activity --- p.58 / Chapter 2.5.3. --- Anti-proliferative effect on cancer cells of phytosterols --- p.59 / Chapter 2.5.3.1. --- Cell culture --- p.59 / Chapter 2.5.3.2. --- Determination of optimal cell density for antiproliferative assays --- p.59 / Chapter 2.5.3.3. --- Anti-proliferative effect of phytosterols on H1299 and Hep G2. --- p.60 / Chapter 2.5.3.4. --- Detection of action mechanism(s) of the anti-proliferative effects of β-sitosterol on H1299 and Hep G2 cancer cells --- p.61 / Chapter 3. --- Result --- p.70 / Chapter 3.1. --- Characterization of Physically Refined Deodorizer Distillate (DODp) --- p.70 / Chapter 3.1.1. --- Free fatty acids composition --- p.70 / Chapter 3.1.2. --- Acid number --- p.75 / Chapter 3.1.3. --- "Free fatty acids, natural glyceride and unsaponifiable matter contents" --- p.75 / Chapter 3.1.4. --- "Squalene, tocopherol and phytosterol contents" --- p.77 / Chapter 3.1.5. --- Other physicochemical and biological analyses --- p.81 / Chapter 3.2. --- Production of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) - Protocol A --- p.83 / Chapter 3.2.1. --- Optimization of Esterification --- p.83 / Chapter 3.2.1.1. --- Methanol to DODp molar ratio --- p.83 / Chapter 3.2.1.2. --- DODp to sulfuric acid molar ratio --- p.85 / Chapter 3.2.1.3. --- Reaction temperature --- p.87 / Chapter 3.2.1.4. --- Calculation of esterification efficiency --- p.87 / Chapter 3.2.2. --- Optimization of Molecular Distillation --- p.89 / Chapter 3.2.2.1. --- Feed rate --- p.89 / Chapter 3.2.2.2. --- Distillation temperature --- p.91 / Chapter 3.2.2.3. --- Rotating blade speed --- p.93 / Chapter 3.2.3. --- Crystallization --- p.97 / Chapter 3.2.3.1. --- Phytosterol preparations --- p.97 / Chapter 3.2.3.2. --- Desterolized fractions --- p.97 / Chapter 3.3. --- Production of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) 一 Protocol B --- p.99 / Chapter 3.3.1. --- Optimization of Saponification --- p.99 / Chapter 3.3.1.1. --- Saponification number --- p.99 / Chapter 3.3.1.2. --- Saponification --- p.99 / Chapter 3.3.2. --- Extraction of unsaponifiable matter --- p.101 / Chapter 3.3.3. --- FAMEs product after esterification --- p.101 / Chapter 3.3.4. --- Crystallization --- p.104 / Chapter 3.3.4.1. --- Phytosterol preparations --- p.104 / Chapter 3.3.4.2. --- Desterolized fractions --- p.104 / Chapter 3.4. --- Quantity and Quality assessments of FAMEs --- p.106 / Chapter 3.4.1. --- "FAMEs yield, purity and appearance" --- p.106 / Chapter 3.4.2. --- Specifications for Biodiesel in U.S.A --- p.106 / Chapter 3.4.3. --- Acute Toxicity assays of FAMEs --- p.109 / Chapter 3.4.3.1. --- Acute toxicity to mice --- p.109 / Chapter 3.4.3.2. --- Seed germination test --- p.109 / Chapter 3.4.3.3. --- Acute toxicity to aquatic invertebrate --- p.109 / Chapter 3.5. --- Quantity and Quality assessments of phytochemicals --- p.113 / Chapter 3.5.1. --- Phytochemicals recoveries and compositions in phytosterol preparations and desterolized fractions --- p.113 / Chapter 3.5.1.1. --- Phytosterols recoveries and compositions in phytosterol preparations --- p.113 / Chapter 3.5.1.2. --- Squalene and tocopherols recoveries and compositions in desterolized fraction --- p.115 / Chapter 3.5.2. --- Antioxidant activities of desterolized fractions --- p.118 / Chapter 3.5.2.1. --- ABTS scavenging activity --- p.118 / Chapter 3.5.2.2. --- Scavenging Activities of DPPH radicals --- p.120 / Chapter 3.5.3. --- Anti-proliferative effect of phytosterols on cancer cells --- p.123 / Chapter 3.5.3.1. --- Determination of optimal cell density for antiproliferative assays --- p.123 / Chapter 3.5.3.2. --- Anti-proliferative effect of phytosterols on H1299 --- p.126 / Chapter 3.5.3.3. --- Anti-proliferative effect of phytosterols on Hep G2 --- p.132 / Chapter 3.5.3.4. --- Further investigation of anti-proliferative mechanism of β-sitosterol --- p.138 / Chapter 4. --- Discussion --- p.149 / Chapter 4.1. --- Characteristics of Physically Refined Deodorizer Distillate (DODp) --- p.149 / Chapter 4.1.1. --- Fatty acid contents and compositions --- p.149 / Chapter 4.1.2. --- "Squalene, tocopherol and phytosterol contents" --- p.153 / Chapter 4.1.3. --- Other physical and chemical analyses --- p.155 / Chapter 4.2. --- Production of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) 一 Protocol A --- p.156 / Chapter 4.2.1. --- Optimization of Esterification --- p.156 / Chapter 4.2.2. --- Optimization of Molecular Distillation --- p.158 / Chapter 4.3. --- Production of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) 一 Protocol B --- p.159 / Chapter 4.3.1. --- Optimization of Saponification --- p.159 / Chapter 4.3.2. --- Extraction of unsaponifiable matter --- p.160 / Chapter 4.3.3. --- Production of FAMEs --- p.161 / Chapter 4.4. --- Purification of phytosterols --- p.162 / Chapter 4.4.1. --- Purity and recovery of phytosterols --- p.162 / Chapter 4.4.2. --- Purity and recovery of squalene and tocopherols in desterolized fractions --- p.163 / Chapter 4.5. --- Quantification of the Loss of Valuable products during Processing --- p.165 / Chapter 4.6. --- Quality assessment of FAMEs and phytochemicals --- p.170 / Chapter 4.6.1. --- Specifications for Biodiesel in USA --- p.170 / Chapter 4.6.2. --- Acute toxicities of FAMEs --- p.171 / Chapter 4.6.3. --- Antioxidant activities of desterolized fractions --- p.172 / Chapter 4.6.4. --- Anti-proliferative effects of phytosterols on cancer cells --- p.173 / Chapter 4.7. --- Comparisons of the two protocols --- p.182 / Chapter 4.7.1. --- Products from protocol A and B --- p.182 / Chapter 4.7.2. --- Characteristics of protocol A and B --- p.183 / Chapter 4.7.3. --- Sustainable recycling technology --- p.184 / Chapter 4.7.4. --- Life cycle analysis --- p.185 / Chapter 4.8. --- Further investigation --- p.186 / Chapter 5. --- Conclusion --- p.187 / Chapter 6. --- Reference --- p.189