<p>Researchers have long assumed that black widow coloration functions as a warning signal to avian predators. However adult female black widow coloration does not resemble typical warning coloration in two distinct ways. First, black widows are less colorful than most other documented aposematic species. Second, the hourglass shape of an adult female varies both between species and within a site. Here I examine the ultimate causes and consequences of North American black widow coloration. </p><p>In chapter two I present data that suggest that black widow coloration not only functions as an aposematic signal to avian predators, but has also been selected to be inconspicuous to insect prey. In choice experiments with wild birds, I found that the red-and-black coloration of black widows deters potential predators: wild birds were ~3 times less likely to attack a black widow model with a red hourglass than one without. Using visual-system appropriate models, I also found that a black widow's red-and-black color combo is more apparent to a typical bird than typical insect (Euclidean color distance ~2.2 times greater for birds than insects). Additionally, an ancestral reconstruction revealed that red dorsal coloration is ancestral in black widows and that at some point some North American black widows lost their red dorsal coloration (while maintaining the ventral hourglass). Behaviorally, differences in red dorsal coloration between two North American species are accompanied by differences in microhabitat that affects how often a bird will view a black widow's dorsal region. All observations are consistent with a cost-benefit tradeoff of being conspicuous to potential predators while being inconspicuous to prey. I suggest that avoiding detection by prey --- combined with Müllerian mimicry --- may help explain why red-and-black aposematic signals occur frequently in nature.</p><p>In chapter three, I examine the variation in hourglass shape. Classical aposematic theory predicts near uniformity in warning signal appearance because a uniform signal is easier to learn to avoid than a variable signal. However the shape of the hourglass of North American black widows appears to vary both within and between sites in ways that are inconsistent with classical aposematic theory. Using 133 black widows of three different species from nine sites across the United States, I quantified the variation in hourglass shape and examined how Müllerian mimicry, species type, and condition each influenced hourglass shape. A principle components analysis revealed that 84.5% of the variation in hourglass shape can be explained by principle components 1, 2, and 3, which corresponded to hourglass size (PC1), the separation between hourglass parts (PC2), and the slenderness of the hourglass (PC3). Both a black widow's condition and species significantly predicted hourglass shape; however I found no support for localized Müllerian mimicry within different geographical regions. My results suggest a relaxed role for selection on hourglass shape. I discuss several hypotheses that could explain the variation in hourglass morphology including that potential predators may avoid any red markings rather than an exact shape (categorical rather than continuous perception).</p><p>In chapter four I expand on my work from chapter two to examine the eavesdropper's perspective on private communication channels. Private communication may benefit signalers by reducing the costs imposed by potential eavesdroppers such as parasites, predators, prey, or rivals. It is likely that private communication channels are influenced by the evolution of signalers, intended receivers, and potential eavesdroppers, but most studies only examine how private communication benefits signalers. Here, I address this shortcoming by examining visual private communication from a potential eavesdropper's perspective. Specifically, I ask if a signaler would face fitness consequences if a potential eavesdropper could detect its signal more clearly. By integrating studies on private communication with those on the evolution of vision, I suggest that published studies find few taxon-based constraints that could keep potential eavesdroppers from detecting most hypothesized forms of visual private communication. However, I find that private signals may persist over evolutionary time if the benefits of detecting a particular signal do not outweigh the functional costs a potential eavesdropper would suffer from evolving the ability to detect it.</p> / Dissertation

This is a comparative study of eye movement behaviour of teleost fish from 5 families with diverse visual specialisations and oculomotor function. In chapter 3 I compared basic oculomotor parameters in three species of fish from the families Creediidae, Syngnathidae and Pinguipedidae, that show asynchronous eye movements and a fovea. All three species showed a close correlation between their specific retinal specialisation, oculomotor range and the lifestyles and feeding habits. Direction of gaze was correlated in the two independently moving eyes in both sandperch (Pinguipedidae) and pipefish (Syngnathidae) but not in the sandlance (Creediidae). Properties of spontaneous and fixational fast eye movements (saccades) in the species studied show many similarities to those found in other vertebrates. The apparent independence of the two eyes in the teleosts studied seem to set them apart from many other vertebrates, where eye movements are largely correlated with respect to each other. The results presented in chapter 4, however, reveal a regular switching of saccadic activity between the left and the right eye in sandlance, pipefish and sandperch, suggesting that the two eyes are in some way correlated. Since saccades are often a motor correlate of attention this finding suggests that these teleosts with asynchronous eye movements may show periodic shifts of attention while observing their environment. In chapter 5 the correlation between the two eyes was also tested during optokinetic nystagmus. This basic response shown by all animals stabilises the gaze against rotational head movements and translation. In most vertebrates the optokinetic response is tightly yoked in both eyes. This is also the case for the butterflyfish (Chaetodontidae) which shows strong yoking of the eyes during spontaneous eye movements. However some capacity for independent optokinesis in the two eyes was observed. Both sandlance and pipefish are capable of following two conflicting stimuli independently. However monocular occlusion in the pipefish unmasks a link between the two eyes, which is overridden when both eyes receive visual input. The sandlance never showed any correlation between eyes during optokinesis, even during monocular stimulation. This suggests that there are different levels of linkage between the two eyes in the oculomotor system of teleosts, depending on the visual input. One of the main functions of the oculomotor system in vertebrates and most invertebrates is to keep the image of the world relatively still on the retina. As shown in chapter 6 the sandlance breaks this universal rule of image stabilisation by showing large postsaccadic drifting eye movements as part of its normal oculomotor behaviour. In these animals, up to 40% of spontaneous saccades are followed by a drifting movement, either binocularly or in one eye only. The drifts are large and are always directed towards the most relaxed position of the eye, indicating that this form of eye movement is not visually driven. However the eye is visually responsive and saccades and an optokinetic response can be elicited during a drift. The drifting speed and the known acuity of the sandlance eye suggest that, during the drift, the image quality is not degraded. Several advantages of this unusual oculomotor behaviour can be related to the unusual optics and lifestyle of the sandlance. A unique modification of the eye muscles of billfish (Xiphiidae) maintains the eye and brain above ambient temperature; however the function of this adaptation and its effect on the oculomotor system is unknown. Chapter 7 aims to provide an insight into the visual abilities of billfish derived from anatomical observations of their retinal structure. The observations help explain the effect the increased retinal temperature might have for vision and eye movements. The blue marlin (Makaira nigricans) shows a well developed temporal area centralis and no visual streak, suggesting that a functional oculomotor system is required in this fish. A convergence of cones to ganglion cells at a ratio of at least 5:1 is present even in the area of highest acuity. The finding of two cone types suggest that the animal is capable of wavelength discrimination. Regional differences in size and composition of photoreceptors between dorsal and ventral retina potentially affect colour vision and sensitivity. The anatomical results suggest that sensitivity and spatial summation are of high priority to billfish. The possible function of the warm retina for increasing temporal resolution is discussed. These findings show the adaptability of the oculomotor system to suit the needs of different teleost lifestyles. However most of the parameters established for the oculomotor system of higher vertebrates also hold for teleosts.

abstract: The elaborate signals of animals are often costly to produce and maintain, thus communicating reliable information about the quality of an individual to potential mates or competitors. The properties of the sensory systems that receive signals can drive the evolution of these signals and shape their form and function. However, relatively little is known about the ecological and physiological constraints that may influence the development and maintenance of sensory systems. In the house finch (Carpodacus mexicanus) and many other bird species, carotenoid pigments are used to create colorful sexually selected displays, and their expression is limited by health and dietary access to carotenoids. Carotenoids also accumulate in the avian retina, protecting it from photodamage and tuning color vision. Analogous to plumage carotenoid accumulation, I hypothesized that avian vision is subject to environmental and physiological constraints imposed by the acquisition and allocation of carotenoids. To test this hypothesis, I carried out a series of field and captive studies of the house finch to assess natural variation in and correlates of retinal carotenoid accumulation and to experimentally investigate the effects of dietary carotenoid availability, immune activation, and light exposure on retinal carotenoid accumulation. Moreover, through dietary manipulations of retinal carotenoid accumulation, I tested the impacts of carotenoid accumulation on visually mediated foraging and mate choice behaviors. My results indicate that avian retinal carotenoid accumulation is variable and significantly influenced by dietary carotenoid availability and immune system activity. Behavioral studies suggest that retinal carotenoid accumulation influences visual foraging performance and mediates a trade-off between color discrimination and photoreceptor sensitivity under dim-light conditions. Retinal accumulation did not influence female choice for male carotenoid-based coloration, indicating that a direct link between retinal accumulation and sexual selection for coloration is unlikely. However, retinal carotenoid accumulation in males was positively correlated with their plumage coloration. Thus, carotenoid-mediated visual health and performance or may be part of the information encoded in sexually selected coloration. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Biology 2011

Serpentes habitam grande diversidade de habitats na maior parte do planeta. Tamanha variedade ambiental implica o desempenho de distintos nichos ecológicos e padrões comportamentais, muitas vezes relacionados a diferentes adaptações de seus sistemas visuais. Não apenas a dispersão destes animais oferece oportunidades privilegiadas de investigação, os diversos e particulares históricos evolutivos neste grupo demarcam transições ambientais convenientes para esclarecer a influência da cena visual sobre a organização de sistemas visuais, comportamentos e a filogenia. A análise comparativa da retina destes animais traz informações a respeito de adaptações comportamentais e ecológicas relativas ao ambiente e padrões circadianos de atividade. Neste trabalho foi realizada a análise dos genes de fotopigmentos visuais e da morfologia dos fotorreceptores de duas espécies de serpentes da família Viperidae, Bothrops jararaca e Crotalus durissus terrificus. Três indivíduos de cada espécie foram obtidos junto ao laboratório de Herpetologia do Instituto Butantan. O RNA total foi extraído a partir de retinas homogeneizadas e convertido em cDNA por meio da reação de transcriptase reversa. Os genes de interesse foram amplificados com uso de primers específicos por meio de reação em cadeia de polimerase (PCR). Após purificação dos produtos de PCR foi realizado o sequenciamento dos genes de opsinas visuais expressos nas retinas das duas espécies, lws, rh1 e sws1. Cada opsina, maximamente sensível a uma banda espectral específica e presente em diferentes populações de fotorreceptores da retina, teve o seu pico de absorção estimado com base na estrutura proteica revelada. Adicionalmente, foi conduzida análise dos tipos celulares de células fotorreceptoras da retina das duas espécies de viperídeos, por meio da técnica de imunohistoquímica, visando caracterização morfológica dos fotorreceptores em que estão compreendidas cada classe de opsina. Os resultados obtidos apontam para os mesmos grupos morfológicos de fotorreceptores e a mesma sensibilidade espectral dos respectivos pigmentos visuais, das duas espécies analisadas: cones simples e cones duplos com o fotopigmento LWS, e pico de sensibilidade espectral (max) estimado em ~555nm; cones simples com o fotopigmento SWS1, e max estimado em ~360nm; e bastonetes, com o fotopigmento RH1, com max de ~500nm. Desta forma conclui-se similaridade do nicho ecológico e do histórico natural das duas espécies, que apontam para adaptações ao habito noturno. Isto demonstra o sucesso evolutivo e a versatilidade proporcionada pela disposição de retina duplex dominada por bastonetes. Em B. jararaca e C. d. terrificus, serpentes da subfamília Crotalinae, estas características de organização do sistema visual são somadas à capacidade de detecção de comprimentos de onda infravermelhos, o que aponta para similaridades em relação a serpentes do grupo Henophidia, consideradas evolutivamente mais primitivas, e consagra novamente a vantagens obtidas na manutenção deste padrão sensorial / Serpents inhabit a great diversity of habitats around the planet. Such environmental variability implies the performance of distinct ecological niches and behavior patterns that are related to different visual system adaptations. The diversity of environments inhabited by snakes and their evolutionary history provides a privileged investigative opportunity on the adaptive organization of the visual systems, specific behaviors and phylogeny. The comparative analysis of the retina of those animals provide many information concerning behavior and ecological adaptations related to their respective environment and circadian rhythm patterns. In this study, we performed genetic analysis of the opsin genes and morphological analysis of the photoreceptors of two snakes from the Viperidae family, Bothrops jararaca and Crotalus durissus terrificus. Three subjects of each species were collected at the Butantan Institute. Total RNA was extracted from homogenized retinas, and mRNA was converted to cDNA by reverse transcriptase reaction. The opsin genes lws, rh1 and sws1 were amplified by polymerase chain reactions (PCR), using specific primers. Each opsin is expressed in a different photoreceptor population and is maximally responsive to a determined spectral absorption peak (max) that was inferred according to the protein structure. Additionally, photorreceptor cell populations were analyzed using immunohistochemistry technique. Results point out to the same morphological cell populations and the same absorption peak in their respective opsins in the two species: double and single cones with the LWS photopigment and estimated max at ~555nm; single cones with the SWS1 photopigment and max at ~360nm; and rods with the rhodopsin RH1 photopigment and max at ~500nm. In this way, great similarity of ecological niche and natural history was concluded for both species, which present adaptations to the nocturnal habit. This should demonstrate the great evolutionary success and versatility attained by the rod-domminated duplex retina. In B. jararaca and C. d. terrificus, snakes from the Crotalinae subfamily, those retinal features are summed to the capability of infra-red detection, which point out to similarity with snakes from the basal Henophidia group

Serpentes habitam grande diversidade de habitats na maior parte do planeta. Tamanha variedade ambiental implica o desempenho de distintos nichos ecológicos e padrões comportamentais, muitas vezes relacionados a diferentes adaptações de seus sistemas visuais. Não apenas a dispersão destes animais oferece oportunidades privilegiadas de investigação, os diversos e particulares históricos evolutivos neste grupo demarcam transições ambientais convenientes para esclarecer a influência da cena visual sobre a organização de sistemas visuais, comportamentos e a filogenia. A análise comparativa da retina destes animais traz informações a respeito de adaptações comportamentais e ecológicas relativas ao ambiente e padrões circadianos de atividade. Neste trabalho foi realizada a análise dos genes de fotopigmentos visuais e da morfologia dos fotorreceptores de duas espécies de serpentes da família Viperidae, Bothrops jararaca e Crotalus durissus terrificus. Três indivíduos de cada espécie foram obtidos junto ao laboratório de Herpetologia do Instituto Butantan. O RNA total foi extraído a partir de retinas homogeneizadas e convertido em cDNA por meio da reação de transcriptase reversa. Os genes de interesse foram amplificados com uso de primers específicos por meio de reação em cadeia de polimerase (PCR). Após purificação dos produtos de PCR foi realizado o sequenciamento dos genes de opsinas visuais expressos nas retinas das duas espécies, lws, rh1 e sws1. Cada opsina, maximamente sensível a uma banda espectral específica e presente em diferentes populações de fotorreceptores da retina, teve o seu pico de absorção estimado com base na estrutura proteica revelada. Adicionalmente, foi conduzida análise dos tipos celulares de células fotorreceptoras da retina das duas espécies de viperídeos, por meio da técnica de imunohistoquímica, visando caracterização morfológica dos fotorreceptores em que estão compreendidas cada classe de opsina. Os resultados obtidos apontam para os mesmos grupos morfológicos de fotorreceptores e a mesma sensibilidade espectral dos respectivos pigmentos visuais, das duas espécies analisadas: cones simples e cones duplos com o fotopigmento LWS, e pico de sensibilidade espectral (max) estimado em ~555nm; cones simples com o fotopigmento SWS1, e max estimado em ~360nm; e bastonetes, com o fotopigmento RH1, com max de ~500nm. Desta forma conclui-se similaridade do nicho ecológico e do histórico natural das duas espécies, que apontam para adaptações ao habito noturno. Isto demonstra o sucesso evolutivo e a versatilidade proporcionada pela disposição de retina duplex dominada por bastonetes. Em B. jararaca e C. d. terrificus, serpentes da subfamília Crotalinae, estas características de organização do sistema visual são somadas à capacidade de detecção de comprimentos de onda infravermelhos, o que aponta para similaridades em relação a serpentes do grupo Henophidia, consideradas evolutivamente mais primitivas, e consagra novamente a vantagens obtidas na manutenção deste padrão sensorial / Serpents inhabit a great diversity of habitats around the planet. Such environmental variability implies the performance of distinct ecological niches and behavior patterns that are related to different visual system adaptations. The diversity of environments inhabited by snakes and their evolutionary history provides a privileged investigative opportunity on the adaptive organization of the visual systems, specific behaviors and phylogeny. The comparative analysis of the retina of those animals provide many information concerning behavior and ecological adaptations related to their respective environment and circadian rhythm patterns. In this study, we performed genetic analysis of the opsin genes and morphological analysis of the photoreceptors of two snakes from the Viperidae family, Bothrops jararaca and Crotalus durissus terrificus. Three subjects of each species were collected at the Butantan Institute. Total RNA was extracted from homogenized retinas, and mRNA was converted to cDNA by reverse transcriptase reaction. The opsin genes lws, rh1 and sws1 were amplified by polymerase chain reactions (PCR), using specific primers. Each opsin is expressed in a different photoreceptor population and is maximally responsive to a determined spectral absorption peak (max) that was inferred according to the protein structure. Additionally, photorreceptor cell populations were analyzed using immunohistochemistry technique. Results point out to the same morphological cell populations and the same absorption peak in their respective opsins in the two species: double and single cones with the LWS photopigment and estimated max at ~555nm; single cones with the SWS1 photopigment and max at ~360nm; and rods with the rhodopsin RH1 photopigment and max at ~500nm. In this way, great similarity of ecological niche and natural history was concluded for both species, which present adaptations to the nocturnal habit. This should demonstrate the great evolutionary success and versatility attained by the rod-domminated duplex retina. In B. jararaca and C. d. terrificus, snakes from the Crotalinae subfamily, those retinal features are summed to the capability of infra-red detection, which point out to similarity with snakes from the basal Henophidia group

Communication is an essential component of animal social systems and a diverse suite of signals can be found in the natural environment. An area of animal communication that, for technical reasons, we know very little about is the field of ‘movement-based’ or ‘dynamic’ visual signals. In this thesis, I make use of recent advances in measurement and analysis techniques, including digital video and image motion processing tools, to improve our understanding of how movement-based signals are adjusted according to signalling context. I measured and characterised the flamboyant claw-waving displays of male fiddler crabs (Genus Uca) and made use of their transparent lifestyle to record the behavioural contexts in which these signals are produced.¶ The claw-waving displays of seven Australian species of fiddler crab are compared and contrasted to show that these signals are species-specific, but also vary within and between individuals. I show that the species Uca perplexa produces different types of signal in different behavioural contexts, a lateral wave for courtship, and a vertical wave during short-range agonistic and courtship interactions. The structure of the lateral courtship waves of Uca perplexa vary according to the distance of signal receivers, the first time this kind of relationship has been shown in a dynamic visual signal. Finally, I describe and analyse the signalling and orientation behaviour of U. elegans during courtship herding, an unusual mating system that uses the claw-waving display in a novel way.¶ The adjustments made by fiddler crabs to their displays during changes in behavioural contexts suggest that the fine-scale context-sensitivity of animal signals may be far more widespread in communication than hitherto recognised.

abstract: Why do many animals possess multiple classes of photoreceptors that vary in the wavelengths of light to which they are sensitive? Multiple spectral photoreceptor classes are a requirement for true color vision. However, animals may have unconventional vision, in which multiple spectral channels broaden the range of wavelengths that can be detected, or in which they use only a subset of receptors for specific behaviors. Branchiopod crustaceans are of interest for the study of unconventional color vision because they express multiple visual pigments in their compound eyes, have a simple repertoire of visually guided behavior, inhabit unique and highly variable light environments, and possess secondary neural simplifications. I first tested the behavioral responses of two representative species of branchiopods from separate orders, Streptocephalus mackini Anostracans (fairy shrimp), and Triops longicaudatus Notostracans (tadpole shrimp). I found that they maintain vertical position in the water column over a broad range of intensities and wavelengths, and respond behaviorally even at intensities below those of starlight. Accordingly, light intensities of their habitats at shallow depths tend to be dimmer than terrestrial habitats under starlight. Using models of how their compound eyes and the first neuropil of their optic lobe process visual cues, I infer that both orders of branchiopods use spatial summation from multiple compound eye ommatidia to respond at low intensities. Then, to understand if branchiopods use unconventional vision to guide these behaviors, I took electroretinographic recordings (ERGs) from their compound eyes and used models of spectral absorptance for a multimodel selection approach to make inferences about the number of photoreceptor classes in their eyes. I infer that both species have four spectral classes of photoreceptors that contribute to their ERGs, suggesting unconventional vision guides the described behavior. I extended the same modeling approach to other organisms, finding that the model inferences align with the empirically determined number of photoreceptor classes for this diverse set of organisms. This dissertation expands the conceptual framework of color vision research, indicating unconventional vision is more widespread than previously considered, and explains why some organisms have more spectral classes than would be expected from their behavioral repertoire. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Biology 2016

No description available.

No description available.

As estruturas oculares dos vertebrados apresentam diversas adaptações relacionadas aos hábitats e atividades das espécies. A infra-ordem Serpentes possui amplo número de espécies distribuídas em quase todas as regiões da Terra e seu sistema visual apresenta variações que apontam para adaptações ecológicas. O presente estudo teve por objetivo fazer uma análise comparativa do sistema visual de diferentes espécies de serpentes Caenophidia, das famílias Dipsadidae e Colubridae, centrada no potencial de visão de cores, na densidade e topografia celular da retina e na acuidade visual. Para tanto, foram identificados os genes de opsinas expressos nas retinas, e analisadas a densidade e distribuição dos diferentes tipos de fotorreceptores e das células da camada de células ganglionares (CCG). As serpentes obtidas junto ao Laboratório de Herpetologia do Instituto Butantan foram sacrificadas com dose letal do anestésico thiopental. Os olhos foram enucleados e as retinas dissecadas para estudos genéticos e morfológicos, com imunohistoquímica e coloração de Nissl. Para sequenciamento dos genes das opsinas SWS1, Rh1 e LWS, dois olhos de 17 espécies foram utilizados. A amplificação por PCR mostrou que os três genes são expressos nas retinas de todas as espécies analisadas; o pico de sensibilidade espectral (max) de cada opsina foi estimado a partir das sequências de aminoácidos. O max do fotopigmento SWS1 foi estimado em 360 nm (UV), para todas as espécies. O fotopigmento Rh1, apresentou três diferentes combinações de aminoácidos que geram picos de sensibilidade em 500 nm, 494 nm e 484 nm. Todas as espécies de serpentes diurnas apresentaram a combinação de aminoácidos que gerou o max 484 nm. O fotopigmento LWS apresentou 4 diferentes combinações de aminoácidos, com max variando entre 543 nm e 560 nm. Para os estudos morfológicos foram utilizadas 86 retinas de 20 diferentes espécies. Retinas íntegras foram marcadas com anticorpos específicos para quantificação e análise topográfica de fotorreceptores. A coloração de Nissl foi empregada em retinas planas para quantificação de células da CCG e cálculo da acuidade visual. As análises morfológicas em retinas de serpentes noturnas mostraram uma grande densidade média de fotorreceptores (82.042 ± 37.945 células/mm2), com predominância de bastonetes, enquanto espécies diurnas apresentaram baixa densidade média de fotorreceptores (11.290 ± 2.810 células/mm2) e ausência de bastonetes. Serpentes noturnas apresentaram densidade média mais baixa de células da CCG (7.653 ± 1.636 4 células/mm2) comparada às diurnas (9.575 ± 2.301 células/mm2). O poder de resolução espacial também foi maior em espécies diurnas (2,3 ± 0,7 cpg) do que nas noturnas (1,45 ± 0,4 cpg). A distribuição de fotorreceptores e células da CCG nas retinas mostrou a presença de area centralis em diferentes regiões das retinas de espécies noturnas, e faixa horizontal em retinas das espécies diurnas, com exceção da serpente aquática e diurna Helicops modestus, que apresentou area centralis. As diferenças de localização das areae centralis variaram de acordo com hábitat e características comportamentais das espécies. Serpentes fossoriais do gênero Atractus, por exemplo, apresentaram area centralis na região dorsal da retina, que favorece o campo de visão inferior e auxilia no comportamento de escavar. Os resultados obtidos neste abrangente estudo apontam para a complexidade das adaptações do sistema visual deste grupo de vertebrados. As variações do padrão de atividade (diurna ou noturna) e uso de hábitat parecem ser fatores de forte influência sobre as características do sistema visual, como a sensibilidade espectral dos pigmentos visuais, a densidade e distribuição de neurônios nas retinas e o poder de resolução espacial do olho / The structures of vertebrate eyes have many adaptations related to the habitats and activities of the species. The infra-order Serpentes has a large number of species distributed in almost all regions of the Earth and its visual system presents variations that point to ecological adaptations. This study aimed to compare the visual system of different species of Caenophidian snakes, from the Dipsadidae and Colubridae families. To do so, the opsin genes expressed in the retinas were identified and the density and distribution of the different types of photoreceptors and the cells of the ganglion cell layer (GCC) were analyzed. The snakes were colected from Butantan Institute and were sacrificed with a lethal dose of the anesthetic thiopental. The eyes were enucleated and the retinas dissected for genetic and morphological studies, using Nissl stainig technique and immunohistochemistry. For the sequencing the opsins genes SWS1, Rh1 and LWS, two eyes of 17 species were colected. PCR amplification showed that the three opsin genes are expressed in the retinas of all species analyzed; the maximum spectral sensitivity (max) of each opsin was estimated based on the amino acid sequences. The max of the SWS1 photopigment was estimated at 360 nm (UV), for all species. The photopigment Rh1 had three different combinations of amino acids that generate max at 500 nm, 494 nm and 484 nm. All diurnal species had the amino acid combination that generate the max at 484 nm. The photopigment LWS had 4 different combinations of amino acids with max ranging from 543 nm to 560 nm. For morphological studies, 86 retinas of 20 different species were analyzed. Wholemounted retinas were stained with specific antibodies for analysis of the photoreceptors density and topography. The Nissl stainig technique was used for quantification of GCL cells in flatmounted retinas and estimation of the spatial resolving power. Nocturnal snakes had retinas with higher photoreceptor densities (82,042 ± 37,945 cells/mm2), with predominance of rods, compared to diurnal species that had low photoreceptors density (11,290 ± 2,810 cells/mm2) and the absence of rods. On the other hand, diurnal snakes had higher density of GCL cells (9,575 ± 2,301 cells/mm2) and spatial resolving power (2.3 ± 0.7 cpd), compared to nocturnal (7,653 ± 1,636 cells/mm2 and 1.45 ± 0.4 cpg). The distribution of cells in the retinas had variations related to the circadian rhythm of the species, with the presence of area centralis in retinas of nocturnal species and horizontal streak in retinas of diurnal snakes, except for the diurnal and aquatic Helicops 6 modestus, that had an area centralis in the ventral retina. The location of the area centralis varies according the habitat and specific behavior of each species. The fossorial snake Atractus, for example, had an area in the dorsal retina, which improves the resolution of the inferior visual field and benefits the digging habit in this snake. The results of this comprehensive study point to the complexity of adaptations of the visual system of this group of vertebrates. The differences in the activity pattern (diurnal or nocturnal) and habitat seem to be of great influence on the characteristics of the visual system, such as the spectral sensitivity of the visual pigments, the density and distribution of neurons in the retina and the spatial resolving power of eye