As redes secundárias de distribuição são item de extrema importância no processo de levar a energia produzida de uma fonte até o consumidor final. Dentro de uma Empresa Concessionária de Distribuição de Energia Elétrica o setor de planejamento, juntamente com o grupo técnico, deve realizar o planejamento dos investimentos necessários nos níveis de alta, média e baixa tensão, sendo que para a baixa tensão (redes secundárias de distribuição), normalmente utilizam-se os dados históricos e a média de investimentos dos últimos anos (de três a cinco últimos anos). Em geral não são encontrados nestas Empresas os cadastramentos das redes secundárias de distribuição ou então, quando estes existem, muitas vezes não são confiáveis. Neste ponto, esta dissertação de mestrado apresentará, aplicará e discutirá os resultados de uma metodologia de geração de redes secundárias de distribuição a partir dos dados das redes primárias de distribuição (média tensão) e dos ativos da Empresa, tendo como foco os investimentos necessários para estas dentro do planejamento agregado de investimentos. O trabalho proposto visa criar condições para que as Empresas enquadradas na situação anterior possam realizar o seu planejamento de baixa tensão valendo-se da aplicação de uma metodologia capaz de gerar tais redes. Uma vez criadas, tais redes serão inseridas dentro de um software de planejamento agregado de investimentos que fornecerá o valor total das aplicações necessárias para os próximos dez anos (planejamento decenal – longo prazo). Ao final do processo, poderá ser observado que os resultados obtidos são muito próximos dos valores esperados para as redes secundárias reais e, com isto, a dissertação discutirá como a metodologia foi implementada, os detalhes da aplicação e, até mesmo, todo o processo de planejamento para três Empresas Concessionárias de Distribuição de Energia Elétrica. Já de posse dos resultados, poderá afirmar-se que o processo produziu valores de muito boa aderência e, assim, os investimentos obtidos para as redes secundárias poderão ser aceitos pelo grupo de planejamento da Empresa. Como conseqüência dos valores de investimentos obtidos para os dez anos, poderão ser observados ainda, guardadas algumas considerações especiais, os valores dos custos marginais de baixa tensão, item de grande importância no planejamento de redes de distribuição. / The low voltage distribution networks are an item of extreme importance in the process of delivering the produced energy from a plant (supply) to the final consumer. In an Electric Power Distribution Company the planning group (sector), together with the technical group, must accomplish the planning of the necessary investments in the high voltage, medium voltage and low voltage levels, and for low voltage distribution networks, usually the historical data and the average of investments of the last years are used (from three to last five years). In general the databases of low voltage networks are not found in these Companies or then, when these exist, a lot of times they are not reliable. For this, this article will show, apply and discuss the results of a methodology for generating low voltage distribution networks starting from the database of the medium voltage distribution networks and of the assets of the Company, having as focus the necessary investments for these networks in planning of investments. The proposed work wishes to create conditions so that the Companies that are in the previous situation can accomplish their planning on low voltage distribution networks using a methodology capable to generate such nets. Once created, such nets will be inserted in a software of planning of investments that will supply the total amount of investments for them for the next ten years (long period planning). In the end of the process, it will be observed that the obtained results are very close to the expected values for the real low voltage distribution networks and, with this, the article will discuss how the methodology was implemented, the details of the application and, even, the whole planning process for three Electric Power Distribution Companies. With the results, it will be affirmed that the process produces values of very good adherence and, for this, the investments obtained for low voltage distribution networks can be accepted by the planning group in the Company. As a consequence of the investments values obtained for the ten years, it will be able to be observed, kept some special considerations, the values of the marginal costs of low voltage, item of great importance in the planning of distribution networks.

As redes secundárias de distribuição são item de extrema importância no processo de levar a energia produzida de uma fonte até o consumidor final. Dentro de uma Empresa Concessionária de Distribuição de Energia Elétrica o setor de planejamento, juntamente com o grupo técnico, deve realizar o planejamento dos investimentos necessários nos níveis de alta, média e baixa tensão, sendo que para a baixa tensão (redes secundárias de distribuição), normalmente utilizam-se os dados históricos e a média de investimentos dos últimos anos (de três a cinco últimos anos). Em geral não são encontrados nestas Empresas os cadastramentos das redes secundárias de distribuição ou então, quando estes existem, muitas vezes não são confiáveis. Neste ponto, esta dissertação de mestrado apresentará, aplicará e discutirá os resultados de uma metodologia de geração de redes secundárias de distribuição a partir dos dados das redes primárias de distribuição (média tensão) e dos ativos da Empresa, tendo como foco os investimentos necessários para estas dentro do planejamento agregado de investimentos. O trabalho proposto visa criar condições para que as Empresas enquadradas na situação anterior possam realizar o seu planejamento de baixa tensão valendo-se da aplicação de uma metodologia capaz de gerar tais redes. Uma vez criadas, tais redes serão inseridas dentro de um software de planejamento agregado de investimentos que fornecerá o valor total das aplicações necessárias para os próximos dez anos (planejamento decenal – longo prazo). Ao final do processo, poderá ser observado que os resultados obtidos são muito próximos dos valores esperados para as redes secundárias reais e, com isto, a dissertação discutirá como a metodologia foi implementada, os detalhes da aplicação e, até mesmo, todo o processo de planejamento para três Empresas Concessionárias de Distribuição de Energia Elétrica. Já de posse dos resultados, poderá afirmar-se que o processo produziu valores de muito boa aderência e, assim, os investimentos obtidos para as redes secundárias poderão ser aceitos pelo grupo de planejamento da Empresa. Como conseqüência dos valores de investimentos obtidos para os dez anos, poderão ser observados ainda, guardadas algumas considerações especiais, os valores dos custos marginais de baixa tensão, item de grande importância no planejamento de redes de distribuição. / The low voltage distribution networks are an item of extreme importance in the process of delivering the produced energy from a plant (supply) to the final consumer. In an Electric Power Distribution Company the planning group (sector), together with the technical group, must accomplish the planning of the necessary investments in the high voltage, medium voltage and low voltage levels, and for low voltage distribution networks, usually the historical data and the average of investments of the last years are used (from three to last five years). In general the databases of low voltage networks are not found in these Companies or then, when these exist, a lot of times they are not reliable. For this, this article will show, apply and discuss the results of a methodology for generating low voltage distribution networks starting from the database of the medium voltage distribution networks and of the assets of the Company, having as focus the necessary investments for these networks in planning of investments. The proposed work wishes to create conditions so that the Companies that are in the previous situation can accomplish their planning on low voltage distribution networks using a methodology capable to generate such nets. Once created, such nets will be inserted in a software of planning of investments that will supply the total amount of investments for them for the next ten years (long period planning). In the end of the process, it will be observed that the obtained results are very close to the expected values for the real low voltage distribution networks and, with this, the article will discuss how the methodology was implemented, the details of the application and, even, the whole planning process for three Electric Power Distribution Companies. With the results, it will be affirmed that the process produces values of very good adherence and, for this, the investments obtained for low voltage distribution networks can be accepted by the planning group in the Company. As a consequence of the investments values obtained for the ten years, it will be able to be observed, kept some special considerations, the values of the marginal costs of low voltage, item of great importance in the planning of distribution networks.

Distributed generation (DG) has received much attention recently due to environmental consciousness and rising of the energy efficiency. However, DG interconnecting to low-voltage distribution system may cause voltage variation, and a lot of single-phase DG or single-phase load may result in voltage unbalance. This thesis presents a distributed-STATCOM (D-STATCOM) to alleviate variation of both positive-sequence and negative-sequence voltages at the fundamental frequency. The D-STATCOM operates as susceptance and conductance at the fundamental positive-and negative-sequence frequency, respectively. The susceptance and conductance commands are dynamically tuned according to voltage fluctuation at the installation location. Therefore, the positive-sequence voltage can be restored to the nominal value as well as the negative-sequence voltage can be suppressed to an allowable level. Computer simulations and experimental results verify the effectiveness of the proposed control strategy.

Στην παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία ϑα µελετηθεί η συµπεριφορά των γραµµών διανομής μέσης τάσης, όταν αυτές πλήττονται από κεραυνούς, είτε άµεσα είτε έµµεσα. Οι κεραυνοί είναι ένα ϕυσικό ϕαινόµενο µε επικίνδυνες συνέπειες για την ασϕάλεια των ανθρώπων, κτιρίων και ηλεκτρικών εγκαταστάσεων. Οι γραµµές του ηλεκτρικού δικτύου (είτε υψηλής, είτε μέσης, είτε χαµηλής τάσης) είναι ευάλωτες σε πλήγµατα κεραυνών. Όταν ένας κεραυνός πλήξει άµεσα µια γραµµή ή το γειτονικό της έδαφος, τότε ϑα εµφανισϑούν σϕάλµατα στο ηλεκτρικό δίκτυο υπό µορφή επικίνδυνων υπερτάσεων. Οι υπερτάσεις αυτές σε πολλές περιπτώσεις µπορεί να υπερβαίνουν την κρουστική τάση αντοχής της µόνωσης του δικτύου, µε αποτέλεσµα, αν δεν υπάρχουν διατάξεις προστασίας, να διασπαστεί το διάκενο, προκαλώντας ανεπανόρθωτη ζηµιά στον εξοπλισµό µας. Η µελέτη για τη συµπεριφορά των εναέριων γραµµών διανοµής εµπεριέχει αρκετές προσεγγίσεις. Μερικές από αυτές αφορούν κάποιες βασικές παραµέτρους, όπως η πυκνότητα των κεραυνών στο έδαφος (GFD) και το πλήθος των άµεσων πληγµάτων στη γραµµή. Προκειµένου να εξάγουµε ασϕαλή δεδοµένα, συµβουλευόµαστε τους αντίστοιχους µετεωρολογικούς πίνακες-χάρτες ( π.χ. ισοκεραυνικοί χάρτες). Στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο της εργασίας γίνεται παρουσίαση της µορφής των συστηµάτων ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας µε ιδιαίτερη έµφαση στο σύστηµα διανοµής. Παρουσιάζεται η δοµή του συστήµατος διανοµής, τα επιµέρους τμήματα και εξαρτήµατα από τα οποία αποτελείται, καθώς και τα χαρακτηριστικά τους. Στο τέλος του κεφαλαίου παρουσιάζονται δεδοµένα και στατιστικά του ελληνικού συστήµατος διανοµής. Στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο, γίνεται µια σύντοµη παρουσίαση των σϕαλµάτων και υπερτάσεων που παρουσιάζονται στο σύστηµα διανοµής, καθώς και των µέσων προστασίας που χρησιµοποιούµε προκειµένου να εξασϕαλίσουµε την αδιάλειπτη λειτουργία και ακεραιότητα του συστήµατος µας. Στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζεται το ϕυσικό ϕαινόµενο του κεραυνού, καθώς και τα βασικά χαρακτηριστικά αυτού. Εξετάζονται τα είδη των κεραυνών και η εξοµοίωσή τους σε εργαστηριακές συνθήκες µέσω κρουστικής τάσης για δοκιµές της αντοχής των µονώσεων. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο περιγράφεται η οδηγία της IEEE για τη συµπεριφορά των εναέριων γραµµών διανοµής ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας έναντι κεραυνών. Σκοπός του κεφαλαίου είναι η παρουσίαση εναλλακτικών λύσεων για τη µείωση των βραχυκυκλωµάτων που προκαλούνται από κεραυνό στις εναέριες γραµµές. Συγκεκριµένα, προσδιορίζεται η συµπεριφορά των εναέριων γραµµών διανοµής σε περίπτωση πτώσης κεραυνού (πλήγµατα κεραυνών και βραχυκυκλώµατα από επαγόµενη τάση), το επίπεδο µόνωσης των γραµµών διανοµής, η προστασία των γραµµών διανοµής µε προστατευτικό αγωγό, καθώς και η προστασία των γραµµών με αλεξικέραυνα. Στο πέµπτο κεφάλαιο της εργασίας, γίνεται επεξεργασία και μελέτη των καταγρεγραμένων σφαλµάτων και βλαβών λόγω πτώσεως κεραυνών στο δίκτυο μέσης τάσης, σε µετασχηµατιστές και σε γραµµές διανοµής Μ.Τ., κατά την διάρκεια της επταετίας 2005-2011 στο νομό Αιτωλοακαρνανίας. Υπολογίζεται αναλυτικά ο ϑεωρητικός αριθµός σφαλµάτων σύµϕωνα µε την οδηγία της IEEE, και στη συνέχεια γίνεται σύγκριση µε τα πραγµατικά σφάλµατα που έχουν καταγραφεί από τις υπηρεσίες της ∆.Ε.Η. στην πόλη του Αγρινίου, µε σκοπό την εξαγωγή χρήσιμων συµπερασµάτων. Γενικά, προκύπτουν αποκλίσεις της θεωρητικής εκτίμησης από τα πραγματικά δεδομένα των καταγραφών, γεγονός που οφείλεται τόσο στον προσεγγιστικό χαρακτήρα της θεωρητικής εκτίμησης, όσο και σε πιθανά λάθη, εξ’ αιτίας της εμπλοκής του ανθρώπινου παράγοντα, στην καταγραφή των πραγματικών σφαλμάτων. Παρ’ όλα αυτά, η απόκλιση αυτή είναι θετική (τα θεωρητικά υπολογισμένα σφάλματα είναι, δηλαδή, περισσότερα από τα καταγεγραμμένα), γεγονός που δεν μειώνει την αξία της εκτίμησης που μας προσφέρει το χρησιμοποιούμενο μοντέλο. / This thesis studies the behavior of medium voltage distribution lines, after being stroked by lightning – directly or indirectly. The lightning is a natural phenomenon, with dangerous impacts on human safety, buildings or electricity premises. The electricity network lines (either of high, medium or low voltage) are prone to lightning strikes. When a lightning strikes a distribution line (or the ground nearby), then faults occur at the distribution network, in the form of dangerous overvoltage. Such overvoltage may in many cases exceed the shock impulse of network’s insulation resistance. As a result, in case no safety arrangements exist, this could lead to gap breakdown, causing irreparable damage to our equipment. The study of the behavior of air distribution lines encompasses several approaches: Some of them have to do with basic parameters, such as the ground flash density (GFD) and the number of direct lightning strikes on distribution lines. In order to export safe data, we use the corresponding meteorological tables/maps (e.g. lightning maps). The first section of this paper contains the presentation of the form of electric power systems, with special emphasis on the distribution system. It is a presentation of the distribution system structure, its individual parts and devices, as well as their features. Data and statistics of the Greek distribution system are presented at the end of the section. The second section is a brief presentation of the faults and overvoltage occurring at the distribution system, as well as of the protection measures we use, in order to ensure uninterrupted operation and integrity, regarding to our system. The third section presents the natural phenomenon of the lightning and its main features. The types of lightning are reviewed here, and its simulation under laboratory conditions through shock impulses, in order to test the insulation resistance. The fourth section is a reference to the directive of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE), regarding to the behavior of air distribution lines in case of lightning. The purpose here is to present alternative solutions for the decrease of short-circuit occurrences caused by lightning on overhead lines. Specifically, the behavior of the overhead distribution lines in the event of lightning strikes is determined (meaning both direct lightning strikes and short-circuits arising from the induced voltage), as well as the level of insulation of distribution lines, the protection of distribution lines by employing a protective tube, and the protection of the lines using lightning rods. The fifth section of this paper is an elaboration of the faults recorded and the damages caused due to lightning strikes on the medium voltage network, as well as on transformers and on M.V. distribution lines over a 7-year period (from 2005 to 2011) about the Aitoloakarnania state. The theoretical number of faults will be calculated in detail, based on the IEEE directive and then these faults will be compared to the real faults provided by D.E.I. in the city of Agrinio (Greek Public Power Corporation), in order to reach our conclusions. In conclusion, a deviation between the theoretical number and the real number of faults is noted: this observation has to do with the approximate character of the model we used, probably as well as the involvement of the human factor in recording the real number of thoughts. However, this deviation is “positive” (meaning that the number of theoretical faults is bigger than the number of the real ones), a fact that does not reduce the value of the number suggested by using the theoretical model provided

Στην παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία μελετήθηκαν οι αιτίες, οι επιπτώσεις και η αντιμετώπιση σε προβλήματα που αφορούν διείσδυση ανώτερων αρμονικών σε δίκτυο μέσης τάσης. Μοντελοποιήθηκε και εισήχθη ένα κομμάτι πραγματικού δικτύου μέσης τάσης στο υπολογιστικό πακέτο MATLAB. Ο εξαχθείσες προσομοιώσεις τόσο της εμπέδησης-συχνότητας όσο και της τάσης παρουσία αρμονικών, έδωσαν συμπεράσματα για τη συμπεριφορά του δικτύου. Τέλος εξετάστηκε η συμπεριφορά του παρουσία παθητικών φίλτρων. / In the present "Diploma Thesis" the causes,the effects and the treatment of high harmonics penetration in middle voltage electric distribution systems were studied.A real middle voltage electric distribution system was modeled with the use of Matlab.The simulations (impedance vs. frequency and voltage with presence of high harmonics) resulted conclusions over the behavior of such system.At last,the behavior of the electric distribution system in presence of passive filters was studied.

Σε αυτή την διπλωματική εργασία θα γίνει μελέτη της συμπεριφοράς γραμμών διανομής σε καταπονήσεις από κεραυνούς. Η πτώση ενός κεραυνού είτε απευθείας πάνω στο δίκτυο είτε κοντά σε αυτό προκαλεί βίαιες μετακινήσεις φορτίων μέσα στο δίκτυο υπό την μορφή ρεύματος Ι, πολλών (kA). Τα φορτία οδεύουν κατά μήκος των γραμμών και κατά τις δυο διευθύνσεις με τη μορφή οδεύοντων κυμάτων τάσεως και αντίστοιχου ρεύματος, μέχρις ότου εξαφανισθούν λόγω απόσβεσης ή διαρροής ή διάσπασης της μονωτικής ικανότητας των γραμμών. Η τάση που επάγεται (V=I*Z) συνήθως υπερβαίνει την κρουστική τάση αντοχής των μονώσεων του δικτύου και, αν δεν υπάρχει κατάλληλη προστασία της γραμμής προκαλεί διάσπαση της μόνωσης. Έτσι η στάθμη αντοχής της μόνωσης π.χ. των μετασχηματιστών, των διακοπτών κτλ. του δικτύου, πρέπει να είναι σημαντικά ανώτερη από την στάθμη της τάσεως, που μπορεί να εγγυηθεί η προστασία, που παρέχουν τα μέσα προστασίας. Η ηλεκτρική μόνωση στα περισσότερα συστήματα διανομής δεν είναι ομογενής. Η στάθμη μόνωσης (BIL) σε ένα δοσμένο τμήμα γραμμής μεταβάλλεται ευρέως. Επιπλέον οι γραμμές διανομής είναι σύνθετα ηλεκτρικά κυκλώματα τα οποία δεν είναι εύκολο να προσαρμοστούν σε κάποιο συγκεκριμένο μαθηματικό μοντέλο και να αναλυθούν για να προσδιορίσουμε τη στάθμη μόνωσης. Όμως οι μέθοδοι που προτείνονται σε αυτή τη διπλωματική εργασία είναι μαθηματικά απλές και αποδεικνύουν μόνο κατάλληλες προσεγγίσεις για τον σχεδιασμό των πιο συνήθων γραμμών διανομής. Ο σχεδιασμός της προστασίας από κεραυνούς σε γραμμές διανομής γίνεται λαμβάνοντας υπόψη τα εξής αποτελέσματα. 1. Τον αριθμό των βραχυκυκλωμάτων που θα συμβούν σε μια γραμμή διανομής όταν αυτή πλήττεται άμεσα από κεραυνούς. 2. Τον αριθμό των βραχυκυκλωμάτων που θα συμβούν εξαιτίας των πληγμάτων κεραυνών σε γειτονικό έδαφος. Στο πρώτο μέρος της εργασίας αναφέρεται η ΙΕΕΕ οδηγία για τη συμπεριφορά έναντι κεραυνών των εναέριων γραμμών διανομής ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Σκοπός της είναι να παρουσιάσει εναλλακτικές λύσεις για τη μείωση των βραχυκυκλωμάτων που προκαλούνται από κεραυνό στις εναέριες γραμμές. Συγκεκριμένα θα προσδιοριστεί η συμπεριφορά των εναέριων γραμμών διανομής σε περίπτωση πτώσης κεραυνού (πλήγματα κεραυνών και βραχυκυκλώματα από επαγόμενη τάση), το επίπεδο μόνωσης των γραμμών διανομής, η προστασία των γραμμών διανομής με προστατευτικό αγωγό καθώς επίσης και η προστασία των γραμμών με αλεξικέραυνα. Στο δεύτερο μέρος της εργασίας, θα αναπτυχθεί η καταγραφή σφαλμάτων και βλαβών λόγω πτώσεως κεραυνών στο δίκτυο της Μ.Τ. σε μετασχηματιστές καθώς και στις γραμμές διανομής Μ.Τ. κατά το έτος 2009-2010 στην περιοχή της Θήβας και γίνεται η συσχέτισή τους με τα θεωρητικά αποτελέσματα. / In the present "Diploma thesis", the behavior of the electric distribution lines under lightning strikes will be studied. A lightning strike,directly on an electric distribution line or indirectly nearby the line, will cause a violent charge movement.Which is actually current (many kA) propagating on the distribution line.The charges are traveling along the distribution line on both directions as traveling waves of voltage and current, until they disappear because of dumping,leakage or breakdown of the insulation ability of the line. The induced voltage (V=I*Z) exceeds the maximum impulse voltage that an insulation can afford, and if a protection is not present an insulation breakdown could be caused. Thus, B.I.L of transformers, switchers e.t.c of a distribution system has to be greater than the voltage level, which the protection can warrantee,and the protection utilities can provide. In most electrical distribution systems the electrical insulation is not homogeneous. B.I.L differentiates for a specific electrical transmission line. Furthermore,distribution lines are complex electrical circuits for which is difficult to be described and analyzed by a mathematical model in order to determine the insulation level. But in this diploma thesis, the mathematical models which are used are simple and proofing only the proper approximations for the design of the most common transmission lines. The design of lightning protection for transmission lines take care the following results. 1. The number of short-circuits that will occur in a transmission line if stroked direct by lightning. 2. The number of short-circuits that will occur in a transmission line if stroked indirect (in the nearby ground) by lightning. In the first part of this thesis is dedicated to the IEEE standard for the behavior of the overheaded electrical transmission lines. The purpose is to present alternative solutions in order to reduce short-circuits caused by lightning strokes. Specifically,the behavior of the overheaded electrical distribution lines when a lighting stroke (lightning stroke and induced voltage),the insulation level of the lines, the protection of the distribution lines with an over-running earth wire and the protection of the lines with surge diverters will be specified. In the second part of this thesis ,the faults and breakdowns caused by lightning strikes on the middle voltage (M.V) transformers and distribution lines,in 2009-10,at Thiva area will be presented and associated with theoretical results.

No description available.

No / Due to high penetration of single-phase Photovoltaic (PV) cells into low voltage (LV) distribution networks, several impacts such as voltage unbalance, voltage rise, power losses, reverse power flow arise which leads to operational constraints violation in the network. In this paper, a time series Three Phase Optimal Power Flow (TPOPF) method is proposed to minimize the voltage unbalance in LV distribution networks with high penetration of residential PVs. TPOPF problem is formulated using the current injection method in which the PVs are modelled via a time-varying PV power profile with active and reactive power control. The proposed method is validated on a real LV distribution feeder. The results show that the reactive power management of the PVs helps mitigate the voltage unbalance significantly. Moreover, the voltage unbalance index reduced significantly compared to the case without voltage unbalance minimisation. / Innovate UK GCRF Energy Catalyst Pi-CREST project under Grant number 41358; British Academy GCRF COMPENSE project under Grant GCRFNGR3\1541; Mut’ah University, Jordan

Yes / The low voltage (LV) distribution network is the last stage of the power network, which is connected directly to the end user customers and supplies many dispersed small-scale loads. In order to achieve environmental targets and to address the energy shortage issue, governments worldwide increase the renewable energy sources (RES) into the electricity grid. In addition, different types of low carbon technologies (LCTs) such as electric vehicles (EVs) are becoming widely used. A significant portion of RES and LCTs is penetrated into the LV distribution network, which poses a wide range of challenges. In order to address these challenges, there is a persistent need to develop traditional planning and operation frameworks to cope with these new technologies. In this context, this paper provides a comprehensive review about planning, operation, and management of LV distribution networks. The characteristics, types, and topologies of LV distribution networks plus different aspects of operation and planning are investigated. An insightful investigation of the reasons impacts and mitigation of voltage and current unbalanced in LV networks is provided. Moreover, the main three-phase power flow techniques used to analyze the LV networks are analyzed.

Som en del av Elsäkerhetsverkets klimatanpassningsarbete undersöktes i detta examensarbete vilken kunskap som finns kring personsäkerhet vid översvämning av lågspänningsanläggningar, samt huruvida vanligt förekommande elapparater och elcentraler läcker ut ström när de nedsänks i vatten. Informationsinhämtning skedde genom sökning i artikeldatabaser. Sökningarna resulterade främst i artiklar om person-säkerhet i andra typer av vattenmiljöer med elanläggningar, i huvudsak båt- och hamnmiljöer. Mätningar på ett urval av eluttag, kopplingsdosor och elcentraler nedsänkta i vatten respresenativt för dagvatten visade att samtliga läckte ut ström till en jordelektrod på 1,2 m avstånd, förutom en elcentral av metall med jordat hölje och stängd dörr. De flesta läckströmmar var större än gränsvärden för farlig strömstyrka. Säkringar på 16 A och 25 A löste ut först vid vattenkonduktivitet representativt för havsvatten. Vid mätningarna uppmättes farliga potentialer i vattnet kring apparaterna och centralerna. Simuleringar med dataprogram visade att det elektriska fältets utbredning kunde påverkas stort av den specifika geometrin i rummet, med främmande ledande delar och olika konduktivitet i väggar och golv. Det bekräftar att strömfördelning och det elektriska fältets utbredning i reella översvämningsmiljöer  är svårförutsägbart. / As a part of the work by the Swedish Electrical Safety Authority to adapt rules and regulations to future climate changes, this thesis investigate the present knowledge about personal safety during flooding of low voltage distribution systems and private electrical utilities. It also investigate if common electrical equipment and distribution boxes leak current when immersed in water. Information seeking was done by searches in article databases. The search results mainly concerned personal safety in other types of  environments with water and electric facilities, mostly boats and marinas. Measurements on a selection of electric equipment and distrbution boxes immersed in water, representative of surface water, showed that all but one produced leak current in the water to a ground electrode at a distance of 1,2 m. Only a metal distribution box with grounded casing and closed door did not produce leak current in the water. Most of the leak currents exceeded limits for dangerous current levels. Dangerous potenatials where recorded in the water surrounding the equipment. Simulations with computer programs showed that the distribution of the electrical field could be greatly affected by the particular environment, consisting of different metal structures common in buildings and different conductivity in walls and floor. It confirms that current split and distribution of electric fields i real flooded environments are hard to predict.