As redes secundárias de distribuição são item de extrema importância no processo de levar a energia produzida de uma fonte até o consumidor final. Dentro de uma Empresa Concessionária de Distribuição de Energia Elétrica o setor de planejamento, juntamente com o grupo técnico, deve realizar o planejamento dos investimentos necessários nos níveis de alta, média e baixa tensão, sendo que para a baixa tensão (redes secundárias de distribuição), normalmente utilizam-se os dados históricos e a média de investimentos dos últimos anos (de três a cinco últimos anos). Em geral não são encontrados nestas Empresas os cadastramentos das redes secundárias de distribuição ou então, quando estes existem, muitas vezes não são confiáveis. Neste ponto, esta dissertação de mestrado apresentará, aplicará e discutirá os resultados de uma metodologia de geração de redes secundárias de distribuição a partir dos dados das redes primárias de distribuição (média tensão) e dos ativos da Empresa, tendo como foco os investimentos necessários para estas dentro do planejamento agregado de investimentos. O trabalho proposto visa criar condições para que as Empresas enquadradas na situação anterior possam realizar o seu planejamento de baixa tensão valendo-se da aplicação de uma metodologia capaz de gerar tais redes. Uma vez criadas, tais redes serão inseridas dentro de um software de planejamento agregado de investimentos que fornecerá o valor total das aplicações necessárias para os próximos dez anos (planejamento decenal – longo prazo). Ao final do processo, poderá ser observado que os resultados obtidos são muito próximos dos valores esperados para as redes secundárias reais e, com isto, a dissertação discutirá como a metodologia foi implementada, os detalhes da aplicação e, até mesmo, todo o processo de planejamento para três Empresas Concessionárias de Distribuição de Energia Elétrica. Já de posse dos resultados, poderá afirmar-se que o processo produziu valores de muito boa aderência e, assim, os investimentos obtidos para as redes secundárias poderão ser aceitos pelo grupo de planejamento da Empresa. Como conseqüência dos valores de investimentos obtidos para os dez anos, poderão ser observados ainda, guardadas algumas considerações especiais, os valores dos custos marginais de baixa tensão, item de grande importância no planejamento de redes de distribuição. / The low voltage distribution networks are an item of extreme importance in the process of delivering the produced energy from a plant (supply) to the final consumer. In an Electric Power Distribution Company the planning group (sector), together with the technical group, must accomplish the planning of the necessary investments in the high voltage, medium voltage and low voltage levels, and for low voltage distribution networks, usually the historical data and the average of investments of the last years are used (from three to last five years). In general the databases of low voltage networks are not found in these Companies or then, when these exist, a lot of times they are not reliable. For this, this article will show, apply and discuss the results of a methodology for generating low voltage distribution networks starting from the database of the medium voltage distribution networks and of the assets of the Company, having as focus the necessary investments for these networks in planning of investments. The proposed work wishes to create conditions so that the Companies that are in the previous situation can accomplish their planning on low voltage distribution networks using a methodology capable to generate such nets. Once created, such nets will be inserted in a software of planning of investments that will supply the total amount of investments for them for the next ten years (long period planning). In the end of the process, it will be observed that the obtained results are very close to the expected values for the real low voltage distribution networks and, with this, the article will discuss how the methodology was implemented, the details of the application and, even, the whole planning process for three Electric Power Distribution Companies. With the results, it will be affirmed that the process produces values of very good adherence and, for this, the investments obtained for low voltage distribution networks can be accepted by the planning group in the Company. As a consequence of the investments values obtained for the ten years, it will be able to be observed, kept some special considerations, the values of the marginal costs of low voltage, item of great importance in the planning of distribution networks.

As redes secundárias de distribuição são item de extrema importância no processo de levar a energia produzida de uma fonte até o consumidor final. Dentro de uma Empresa Concessionária de Distribuição de Energia Elétrica o setor de planejamento, juntamente com o grupo técnico, deve realizar o planejamento dos investimentos necessários nos níveis de alta, média e baixa tensão, sendo que para a baixa tensão (redes secundárias de distribuição), normalmente utilizam-se os dados históricos e a média de investimentos dos últimos anos (de três a cinco últimos anos). Em geral não são encontrados nestas Empresas os cadastramentos das redes secundárias de distribuição ou então, quando estes existem, muitas vezes não são confiáveis. Neste ponto, esta dissertação de mestrado apresentará, aplicará e discutirá os resultados de uma metodologia de geração de redes secundárias de distribuição a partir dos dados das redes primárias de distribuição (média tensão) e dos ativos da Empresa, tendo como foco os investimentos necessários para estas dentro do planejamento agregado de investimentos. O trabalho proposto visa criar condições para que as Empresas enquadradas na situação anterior possam realizar o seu planejamento de baixa tensão valendo-se da aplicação de uma metodologia capaz de gerar tais redes. Uma vez criadas, tais redes serão inseridas dentro de um software de planejamento agregado de investimentos que fornecerá o valor total das aplicações necessárias para os próximos dez anos (planejamento decenal – longo prazo). Ao final do processo, poderá ser observado que os resultados obtidos são muito próximos dos valores esperados para as redes secundárias reais e, com isto, a dissertação discutirá como a metodologia foi implementada, os detalhes da aplicação e, até mesmo, todo o processo de planejamento para três Empresas Concessionárias de Distribuição de Energia Elétrica. Já de posse dos resultados, poderá afirmar-se que o processo produziu valores de muito boa aderência e, assim, os investimentos obtidos para as redes secundárias poderão ser aceitos pelo grupo de planejamento da Empresa. Como conseqüência dos valores de investimentos obtidos para os dez anos, poderão ser observados ainda, guardadas algumas considerações especiais, os valores dos custos marginais de baixa tensão, item de grande importância no planejamento de redes de distribuição. / The low voltage distribution networks are an item of extreme importance in the process of delivering the produced energy from a plant (supply) to the final consumer. In an Electric Power Distribution Company the planning group (sector), together with the technical group, must accomplish the planning of the necessary investments in the high voltage, medium voltage and low voltage levels, and for low voltage distribution networks, usually the historical data and the average of investments of the last years are used (from three to last five years). In general the databases of low voltage networks are not found in these Companies or then, when these exist, a lot of times they are not reliable. For this, this article will show, apply and discuss the results of a methodology for generating low voltage distribution networks starting from the database of the medium voltage distribution networks and of the assets of the Company, having as focus the necessary investments for these networks in planning of investments. The proposed work wishes to create conditions so that the Companies that are in the previous situation can accomplish their planning on low voltage distribution networks using a methodology capable to generate such nets. Once created, such nets will be inserted in a software of planning of investments that will supply the total amount of investments for them for the next ten years (long period planning). In the end of the process, it will be observed that the obtained results are very close to the expected values for the real low voltage distribution networks and, with this, the article will discuss how the methodology was implemented, the details of the application and, even, the whole planning process for three Electric Power Distribution Companies. With the results, it will be affirmed that the process produces values of very good adherence and, for this, the investments obtained for low voltage distribution networks can be accepted by the planning group in the Company. As a consequence of the investments values obtained for the ten years, it will be able to be observed, kept some special considerations, the values of the marginal costs of low voltage, item of great importance in the planning of distribution networks.

Distributed generation (DG) has received much attention recently due to environmental consciousness and rising of the energy efficiency. However, DG interconnecting to low-voltage distribution system may cause voltage variation, and a lot of single-phase DG or single-phase load may result in voltage unbalance. This thesis presents a distributed-STATCOM (D-STATCOM) to alleviate variation of both positive-sequence and negative-sequence voltages at the fundamental frequency. The D-STATCOM operates as susceptance and conductance at the fundamental positive-and negative-sequence frequency, respectively. The susceptance and conductance commands are dynamically tuned according to voltage fluctuation at the installation location. Therefore, the positive-sequence voltage can be restored to the nominal value as well as the negative-sequence voltage can be suppressed to an allowable level. Computer simulations and experimental results verify the effectiveness of the proposed control strategy.

No / Due to high penetration of single-phase Photovoltaic (PV) cells into low voltage (LV) distribution networks, several impacts such as voltage unbalance, voltage rise, power losses, reverse power flow arise which leads to operational constraints violation in the network. In this paper, a time series Three Phase Optimal Power Flow (TPOPF) method is proposed to minimize the voltage unbalance in LV distribution networks with high penetration of residential PVs. TPOPF problem is formulated using the current injection method in which the PVs are modelled via a time-varying PV power profile with active and reactive power control. The proposed method is validated on a real LV distribution feeder. The results show that the reactive power management of the PVs helps mitigate the voltage unbalance significantly. Moreover, the voltage unbalance index reduced significantly compared to the case without voltage unbalance minimisation. / Innovate UK GCRF Energy Catalyst Pi-CREST project under Grant number 41358; British Academy GCRF COMPENSE project under Grant GCRFNGR3\1541; Mut’ah University, Jordan

Yes / The low voltage (LV) distribution network is the last stage of the power network, which is connected directly to the end user customers and supplies many dispersed small-scale loads. In order to achieve environmental targets and to address the energy shortage issue, governments worldwide increase the renewable energy sources (RES) into the electricity grid. In addition, different types of low carbon technologies (LCTs) such as electric vehicles (EVs) are becoming widely used. A significant portion of RES and LCTs is penetrated into the LV distribution network, which poses a wide range of challenges. In order to address these challenges, there is a persistent need to develop traditional planning and operation frameworks to cope with these new technologies. In this context, this paper provides a comprehensive review about planning, operation, and management of LV distribution networks. The characteristics, types, and topologies of LV distribution networks plus different aspects of operation and planning are investigated. An insightful investigation of the reasons impacts and mitigation of voltage and current unbalanced in LV networks is provided. Moreover, the main three-phase power flow techniques used to analyze the LV networks are analyzed.

Som en del av Elsäkerhetsverkets klimatanpassningsarbete undersöktes i detta examensarbete vilken kunskap som finns kring personsäkerhet vid översvämning av lågspänningsanläggningar, samt huruvida vanligt förekommande elapparater och elcentraler läcker ut ström när de nedsänks i vatten. Informationsinhämtning skedde genom sökning i artikeldatabaser. Sökningarna resulterade främst i artiklar om person-säkerhet i andra typer av vattenmiljöer med elanläggningar, i huvudsak båt- och hamnmiljöer. Mätningar på ett urval av eluttag, kopplingsdosor och elcentraler nedsänkta i vatten respresenativt för dagvatten visade att samtliga läckte ut ström till en jordelektrod på 1,2 m avstånd, förutom en elcentral av metall med jordat hölje och stängd dörr. De flesta läckströmmar var större än gränsvärden för farlig strömstyrka. Säkringar på 16 A och 25 A löste ut först vid vattenkonduktivitet representativt för havsvatten. Vid mätningarna uppmättes farliga potentialer i vattnet kring apparaterna och centralerna. Simuleringar med dataprogram visade att det elektriska fältets utbredning kunde påverkas stort av den specifika geometrin i rummet, med främmande ledande delar och olika konduktivitet i väggar och golv. Det bekräftar att strömfördelning och det elektriska fältets utbredning i reella översvämningsmiljöer  är svårförutsägbart. / As a part of the work by the Swedish Electrical Safety Authority to adapt rules and regulations to future climate changes, this thesis investigate the present knowledge about personal safety during flooding of low voltage distribution systems and private electrical utilities. It also investigate if common electrical equipment and distribution boxes leak current when immersed in water. Information seeking was done by searches in article databases. The search results mainly concerned personal safety in other types of  environments with water and electric facilities, mostly boats and marinas. Measurements on a selection of electric equipment and distrbution boxes immersed in water, representative of surface water, showed that all but one produced leak current in the water to a ground electrode at a distance of 1,2 m. Only a metal distribution box with grounded casing and closed door did not produce leak current in the water. Most of the leak currents exceeded limits for dangerous current levels. Dangerous potenatials where recorded in the water surrounding the equipment. Simulations with computer programs showed that the distribution of the electrical field could be greatly affected by the particular environment, consisting of different metal structures common in buildings and different conductivity in walls and floor. It confirms that current split and distribution of electric fields i real flooded environments are hard to predict.

Neste trabalho, apresenta-se um método para o Planejamento de Redes de Distribuição Secundária. O modelo básico desenvolvido baseia-se em técnica de programação dinâmica a fim de selecionar a política de evolução de trocas de transformadores de distribuição e rede secundária, com mínimo custo operacional dentro de limites de qualidade de serviço, para o atendimento de carga crescente no tempo em uma área de estudo restrita. Inicialmente, apresenta-se a filosofia básica do método, incluindo-se os dados necessários, critérios de planejamento e metodologia para o cálculo elétrico de redes secundárias. Em sequência, são apresentados três modelos para a solução do problema; tais modelos são diferenciados pela eliminação progressiva de hipóteses simplificativas. Nos dois primeiros modelos, a carga e seu crescimento são supostos uniformemente distribuídos ao longo dos trechos da rede secundária. No terceiro modelo, a distribuição da carga dos pontos presentes na rede secundária, durante o período de estudo, é estabelecida por procedimento randômico, com o único vínculo de serem mantidos os mercados globais de demanda e número de consumidores na área em estudo. Posteriormente, estabelece-se um exemplo de aplicação que permite proceder à comparação entre os três modelos desenvolvidos. Finalizando o trabalho, são estabelecidas as conclusões, possibilidades de aplicação do método em diversos estudos do sistema de Distribuição Secundária e são tecidos comentários sobre tópicos para ulterior desenvolvimento. / This work focuses on a method for the Planning of Secondary Distribution Systems. The basic model deals with dynamic programming in order to get an optimized design - Distribution Transformer and Secondaries - which presents the lowest operation cost within service quality limits in order to supply growing load on a restricted area. Initially the basic concepts of the method are presented, including the establishment of the data base, planning criteria and methodology in order to get operating conditions at secondary networks. Concerning this method, three computational models were established. These models differ form each other as far as some of the simplified hypothesis are eliminated. The first two models consider a uniform distribution of loads along the secondary system. The third model establishes a randomic distribution of loads on the restricted studying area. Following an application example, comparison is proceeded among the developed models. Eventually the conclusions, some possible applications of the method on Distribution system studies and research topics for further developments are settled.

Neste trabalho, apresenta-se um método para o Planejamento de Redes de Distribuição Secundária. O modelo básico desenvolvido baseia-se em técnica de programação dinâmica a fim de selecionar a política de evolução de trocas de transformadores de distribuição e rede secundária, com mínimo custo operacional dentro de limites de qualidade de serviço, para o atendimento de carga crescente no tempo em uma área de estudo restrita. Inicialmente, apresenta-se a filosofia básica do método, incluindo-se os dados necessários, critérios de planejamento e metodologia para o cálculo elétrico de redes secundárias. Em sequência, são apresentados três modelos para a solução do problema; tais modelos são diferenciados pela eliminação progressiva de hipóteses simplificativas. Nos dois primeiros modelos, a carga e seu crescimento são supostos uniformemente distribuídos ao longo dos trechos da rede secundária. No terceiro modelo, a distribuição da carga dos pontos presentes na rede secundária, durante o período de estudo, é estabelecida por procedimento randômico, com o único vínculo de serem mantidos os mercados globais de demanda e número de consumidores na área em estudo. Posteriormente, estabelece-se um exemplo de aplicação que permite proceder à comparação entre os três modelos desenvolvidos. Finalizando o trabalho, são estabelecidas as conclusões, possibilidades de aplicação do método em diversos estudos do sistema de Distribuição Secundária e são tecidos comentários sobre tópicos para ulterior desenvolvimento. / This work focuses on a method for the Planning of Secondary Distribution Systems. The basic model deals with dynamic programming in order to get an optimized design - Distribution Transformer and Secondaries - which presents the lowest operation cost within service quality limits in order to supply growing load on a restricted area. Initially the basic concepts of the method are presented, including the establishment of the data base, planning criteria and methodology in order to get operating conditions at secondary networks. Concerning this method, three computational models were established. These models differ form each other as far as some of the simplified hypothesis are eliminated. The first two models consider a uniform distribution of loads along the secondary system. The third model establishes a randomic distribution of loads on the restricted studying area. Following an application example, comparison is proceeded among the developed models. Eventually the conclusions, some possible applications of the method on Distribution system studies and research topics for further developments are settled.

The number of electrical vehicles in Sweden are increasing faster for every year and the demand of charging them at home is growing as well. This requires high delivery reliability and a stable low-voltage distribution grid. In this master thesis three different low-voltage networks are modelled and simulated together with load which corresponds home charging of electrical vehicles (EV) to analyse if the grid is able to handle these kinds of stresses. Information of the different grids were gathered from Falu Energi & Vatten and modelled in Matlab together with EV charging loads generated in a separate program. The electricity consumption data used in the simulations were measured at the transformer in each grid. A regression analysis of the consumption data were preformed to calculate values which corresponds to a worst case scenario. The results show that the low-voltage distribution grid in Falun is well dimensioned and can handle these possible future loads even in the worst constructed scenario.

In this thesis, the conventional low voltage power line communication methods is investigated in the axis of automated meter reading applications and the classification and experimental verification of common noise types for low voltage power line communication network. The investigated system provides the real time transmission of electricity consumption data recorded by electricity meters, initially to a local computer via a low voltage line through a low speed PLC (Power Line Carrier) environment and subsequently to a corporate network through a high speed data transmission medium. The automated meter system provides a more effective tracking and data acquisition, a more detailed and vigorous knowledge about consumer behavior for subscriber assessment in electricity distribution in association with a brand new management and system supervision concept in electricity distribution control and management technology. The theoretical studies are experimentally verified for the Turkish low voltage power infrastructure through laboratory experiments performed in METU Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department, Electrical Machines and Drives Laboratory and R&amp / D Laboratories of MAKEL facilities in Hadimk&ouml / y. The single phase voltage of the mains line between the phase and neutral is monitored to exhibit the disturbing effects of various noise sources. The resulting voltage spectrum is logged by using digital data acquisition devices in time and frequency domain. The waveforms are converted to frequency domain using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) functions of the MATLAB. The experimental results are compared to the theoretical findings obtained through literature survey.