The share of cars being powered by electricity is rising in Sweden. So far, this has seldom been causing queues at charging stations but if the rise continues as expected, it might potentially be a problem in the future. This thesis aims to shed light on when this might become a problem in a certain area and give example of a potential solution for that case. Three scenarios with different shares of cars being electric is analyzed with a simple model of a system with fast chargers for an area with a highly variable traffic flow. The arrival times to the system is derived from measured traffic flow and extrapolated up until 2030 and a charging time is set based on assumed travel behavior. A comparison is made between the expected electricity consumption using this approach and actual data from a fast charging station. The comparison indicates that electric cars are not being used for the winter time cross-country trips analyzed here in the same extent as conventional cars. The potential to keep the number of stationary fast chargers down using a portable solution with Li-ion battery storage with and without attached production of electricity for situations with a higher than normal charging demand is then investigated. A containerized Li-ion battery solution of 760 kWh has the potential to replace two 50 kW fast chargers in the studied case.

Detta examensarbete har genomförts i samarbete med Arvika Teknik AB. Rapporten undersöker två bostadsområden i Arvika lokalnät, där syftet är att ge vägledning om framtidens energibehov för elbilar samt om solceller kan hjälpa till och minska effekttoppar. Rapporten visar på att lokalnät i vissa fall har stora effektutrymmen som kan användas till laddning av elbilar. Ytterligare visas att solceller endast kan ha en marginell inverkan på effekttoppar. Utmaningarna för nätbolagen innefattar många andra faktorer än de som berörs i denna rapport. Rapporten ger viss vägledning men mycket arbete återstår. Problem med elbilsladdning kommer inte komma de närmaste åren men på sikt kommer det vara viktigt att utveckla metoder att styra elbilsladdningen. / This bachelor thesis is collaborated with Arvika Teknik AB. It’s an analyse of two local grids in Arvika. The purpose is providing guidance of future energy needs for charging of electric vehicles and whether photovoltaics is able to reduce power peaks. The report shows that some local grids have good capabilities to meet future power demand from charging electric vehicles. This thesis also shows that photovoltaics potentially has a fringe possibility to cut current power peaks. There are many more challenges for network operators than what is referred to here. Hence the report gives some guidance, but more research is needed. For both areas investigated, problems due to power shortages related to charging electric vehicles will not occur in the next few years. But as the number of electric vehicles rises it will be important to find methods to distribute the charging sessions.

This paper covers a study of the Swedish charging market for electric vehicles from both the perspective of stakeholders and car owners. By interviewing representatives of four key stakeholders on the market; commercial parkings, malls, service stations and working places, data regarding their business models of today is examined. At present electricity is provided for free, but all stakeholder point out that this business model is not sustainable in the long run. The result of the interviews shows that electricity won’t be offered for free in the future – the question is which factors affect how long it will take for the different stakeholders to find a suitable business model. Furthermore, opinions from the owners of electric vehicles in Sweden are collected in a quantitative study. After connecting this input to a theoretical framework and adding input from the interviews, the result is that the geographical site of a stakeholder affects what type of charging customers demand. Consequently, the required charging equipment and the necessary financial investments are affected in different ways depending on the characteristics of a particular stakeholder. Lastly, the paper gives an action guideline regarding what part of the business model different stakeholders should focus on during the development of the charging market in Sweden. This development is to a great extent influenced by the growth rate in the number of electric vehicles. In addition, if the Swedish government wants to increase the number of electric cars it is of great importance to decrease the price of electric cars, as well as providing potential buyers with more information.

Det råder inga tvivel om att fordonsindustrin har förändrats och påverkats av konsumenternas ökade intresse och medvetande om miljöpåverkan. Under de senaste åren har mängden elbilar ökat vilket leder till fler attacker utförs. Därför behöver användarna och tillverkarna bli medvetna om eventuella risker. Undersökningen har genomförts i syfte att kartlägga brister i kommunikationen i laddningsprocessen för elbilar. Den personliga integriteten har blivit allt mer viktig i samhället och bör därför appliceras även på laddningsprocessen. Detta mynnar ut i frågor gällande möjligheten att avlyssna eller manipulera kommunikationen, säkerhetsbrister och deras risk att utnyttjas samt hur tillämpning av ISO 15118 påverkar framtiden inom laddning. Med hjälp av en jämförelse av OCPP protokollet och ISO 15118 standarden har brister presenterats i förhållande till olika säkerhetskrav. För att få en mer nyanserad bild av området har det utförts tre intervjuer med nyckelpersoner från branschen. Jämförelsen har lett fram till ett resultat som består av likheter och skillnader i säkerhetskrav, tekniska implementationer såsom plug \& charge, autocharge, HLC och TLS. För att tydliggöra säkerhetskraven för OCPP och ISO har use-case scenarion formulerats. Det råder delade meningar om huruvida ISO standarden är formulerad på ett acceptabelt sätt. Trots att ISO standarden är säkrare på grund av dess avancerade kryptografiska metoder erbjuder den inte skydd mot samtliga attacker. En standard garanterar inte att alla leverantörer eftersträvar den i samma utsträckning då det finns utrymme för tolkning. Därför är det viktigt att de samarbetar och jobbar mot samma mål i sin utveckling.

The aim of this thesis has been to investigate the technical and social potential for electric car charging as a flexibility resource in Uppsala. In addition, the user pattern has been examined, as well as the drivers’ motivation and obstacles contributing to flexibility. This has been done through quantitative and qualitative methods in the form of simulations and semi-structured interviews. The results show that the user pattern of the chargers and Uppsala city show a great similarity in form of two peaks. However, the peaks do not coincide, as they are separated by two and three hours, respectively. Furthermore, the public charging station occupancy turns out to be low, which is explained by the interviewees as the fact that the majority have their primary charging station at home. It is not important when charging takes place, only that it takes place. However, it is of great importance to always be able to charge. The drivers' motivation and impediments to assist with flexibility vary greatly in terms of the size and significance of the compensation. The results show that just over 2/5 of every charging session has flexibility potential, and that charging takes place for about half of the connected time. The largest proportion of flexibility potential lie within 30 min-1h followed by 1-2h respectively. Thus, with the possibility of shifting or pausing charge during that time. The greatest potential is obtained for 1,85 kW charging, largely due to an overrepresentation in the data set used for the simulations. A theoretical flexibility has been established based on the available energy data. However, to analyze in detail how car charging affects Uppsala's capacity shortage, access to high resolved power data is of great importance. To sum up, the overall results show that there are substantial preconditions for a technical and social potential for electric cars as a flexibility resource in Uppsala. Although, it requires well-developed incentives and aids to be realized, where end users assist with flexibility to the electricity grid.

The aim of the project was to examine the possible increase of electric power usage for electric cars with retained capacity in the electric grid of Falkenberg Energi AB. This also included identifying the fragile components in the grid. In order to examine this, a model of the grid was constructed with loads designed to mimic electric vehicle charging. The simulation generated a list showing the most stressed nodes in descending order. The results showed that there was a small number of nodes in the grid that became overloaded in certain hours of the year. The cables , on the other hand, were not overloaded at any point of the year.

This thesis examines charging of electric vehicles with charging power of 3,7 kW, in connection to an apartment building in Sweden. Also the power consumption of six electric vehicles are investigated. The charging-simulations of the electric vehicles were performed with the electric vehicle charging model (Grahn-Munkhammar) in MatLab. To simulate general energy use for a housing complex, the measured energy consumption per year for a building with 24 apartments was used. Three different systems with charging over a year were simulated. One system included six different models of electric vehicles, another system included six Tesla model S and yet another one included six Mitsubishi Outlanders. The simulations of electric vehicle charging resulted in a charging pattern with a considerable variability and an aggregation effect with a value over 20 % for all three systems. Results show that electric vehicle charging adds to the power peaks of the apartment building. However, according to the model, the aggregation effect implies that effect values of total electric vehicle charging were not harmful to an apartment building with a fuse of 63 A.

Inom en nära framtid kan antalet elbilar i samhället vara många gånger större än det är idag. Någon enstaka elbil påverkar inte elnätet men när mängden laddbara fordon ökar kommer elnätets förutsättningar förändras. Därför vill Skellefteå Kraft undersöka hur deras lågspänningsnät kan komma att påverkas av en storskalig utbyggnad av laddinfrastruktur.   Det här examensarbetet undersöker hur lågspänningsnätet i olika typer av områden är belastat idag och simulerar att de fler och fler av de boende i området köper elbil. Fyra olika områden undersöks för att se vilka skillnader som finns mellan dessa och skapa en uppfattning om vilka typer av områden som kan bli störst bekymmer i framtiden. Tidigare har en liknande analys gjorts för ett villaområde och i det här arbetet undersöks ett område med flerbostadshus, ett radhusområde, en by på landsbygden och ett område med en stor personalparkering.   Undersökningarna görs med hjälp av Skellefteå Krafts NIS-system dpPower där man kan utföra nätberäkningar och simulera tillägg av laster bland annat. 25 – 100 % elbilsutbredning undersöks och även olika sorters laddare, den vanligaste som är på 3,7 kW samt trefasladdning på 11 kW. Beräkningarna förenklas genom att hela tiden arbeta med ”worst case – scenario”, till exempel att alla elbilar som finns i ett område laddas samtidigt.   Resultatet av beräkningarna blir att man kan se att landsbygdsnät har större problem med spänningsfall än nät i städer. Städerna har å andra sidan större risk för överbelastning i kablar. Transformatorn kan också bli en begränsande faktor och det sker i huvudsak i områden där transformatorn redan idag är högt belastad.  Slutsatsen av arbetet är att olika bostadsområden har olika stora problem med att ansluta elbilsladdare i framtiden och att två till synes likartade områden kan ha betydande skillnader. På grund av sagda skillnader är generella slutsatser för hela Skellefteå Krafts elnät svåra att dra utifrån de undersökningar som gjorts i rapporten. För att få en tydligare uppfattning om vilka mönster som finns rekommenderas att fler beräkningar genomförs. / In just a few years, the number of electric cars on the Swedish roads will be much bigger than today. To charge those electric vehicles a lot of electricity will be needed, and the power grid will face a new challenge. Skellefteå Kraft Elnät AB wants to learn how their low voltage grid can handle a future with a large amount of electric vehicles and that is why this thesis is written.   This report analyzes how the low voltage grid in different types of areas are loaded today and simulates how it will be affected if the people who lives there uses electric vehicles to a varying extent. Four types of areas are examined to see the distinction between them and to learn which areas will have the biggest problem in the future. Earlier, a similar analysis of a detached area has been made by Skellefteå Kraft. This thesis will continue to look at an area with apartment buildings, one with terraced houses, one large parking lot and a rural area.    The calculations are made with a software, in which it is possible to add new loads to the grid and calculate the voltage drop, loading rate and such. An expansion of electric vehicles to 25 – 100 % of the persons living in an area is investigated and also two different types of chargers. All the calculations are made for a worst case scenario, for example that all the electric cars are charging at the same time.   Rural areas will have bigger problems with voltage drop than the city areas and in the city the loading of the cables will be the main issue. Some transformers will be overloaded early, and the greatest risk is for transformers that is already heavily loaded today.   The conclusion is that different residential areas will have different problems to connect electric vehicles in the future. Two similar areas can have significant different possibilities and challenges. Due to these distinctions it is difficult to draw general conclusions of the entire low voltage grid based on these calculations. It is recommended to do calculations over more areas to get a better understanding of the patterns.

In order to reach climate goals regarding the reduction ofcarbon dioxide in the environment, the decarbonisation of the transport sector plays a crucial role. Along with this revolution, electric vehicles will most likely be a candidate to replace market shares from gasoline and diesel. The deployment of electric cars is now starting to increase, by over 2 millions electrical vehicles running on the streets world wide in year 2016, which is more than the double compared to previous year. This master thesis examines home charging and its impact on the distribution grid of two types, one in a smaller urban area and one in a rural area in the Swedish city Sala. Different integration levels of electric vehicles are examined regarding voltage drop, relative loading of conductors and transformers, and the voltage symmetry with charging only on one phase. The simulations are made in the NIS-based system dpPower based on charging data from Grahn et.al.(2013), and the study of powerpeaks is made in Matlab with the use of consumption data from customers. The results show that the transfomer is the only limitation in the grid of the urban area, which fails at an integration level of 50 percent at 11 kW of charging. Compared to the grid in the rural area which reacts more strongly of home charging. In this case it is most likely to fail at 30 percents integration at 3,7 kW of charging. Also a greater accuracy has to be taken into account here regarding the placing of one phase-chargers at different phases. This in order to not exceed the 2 percent limit of voltage symmetry. With the aim to reduce power peaks, the grid seems to benefit from high demand response and local battery storage, which reduce the power peaks to an extent that could be comparable to reducing the integration level of electric vehicles from 50 to 30 percent.

Two strong trends in society which may have a major impact on the electricity grid load in the near future are the expansion of micro production with solar cells, and the increasingly prominent role of electric cars in the automotive market. In this work, an attempt is made to develop standardized and not too time-consuming methods to study how different future scenarios with large-scale expansion of private micro production with solar cells, as well as a very proportion of cars are electric and being charged at home, affect the various parts of the network with regarding voltage levels and load rating. A number of assumptions about average size and production for solar cell installations, as well as about charging effects and charging behavior were made as input to the calculations. Two variants of methods were tested to carry out the calculations in Umeå Energy's network calculation program dpPower. In the first method, for each connection (at low voltage calculation) and mains station (at intermediate voltage calculation) a standardized production or consumption is specified which is then combined with the historical consumption which gives the worst case. The second, faster method uses a scale factor to increase or decrease a specific historical consumption so that the calculation is made for the worst case of net production/consumption in the calculated area that you want to study. The methods are deemed to work relatively well in assessing load levels, provided that when interpreting results, one is aware that mainly the scaling method can yield unrealistic figures for consumption and production at certain nodes. However, validation of the voltage calculations by comparison with data from electricity quality meters installed in certain network stations shows that the program in many cases exaggerates voltage drops. The difference to the measured values were up to 65%. Further studies of what causes the calculation errors need to be made in order to eliminate said causes before the proposed methods can be used for this purpose. / Två starka trender i samhället som kan innebära en stor inverkan på elnätets belastning i en nära framtid är utbyggnaden av mikroproduktion med solceller, samt elbilarnas allt mer framträdande roll på fordonsmarknaden. I detta arbete görs ett försök att ta fram metoder för att på ett standardiserat och inte allt för tidskrävande sätt studera hur olika framtida scenarier med storskalig utbyggnad av privat mikroproduktion med solceller, samt då en mycket stor andel av personbilsparken är elbilar som laddas hemma, påverkar nätets olika delar med avseende på spänningshållning och belastningsgrad. Ett antal antaganden om genomsnittlig storlek och produktion för solcellsinstallationer, samt om laddningseffekter och laddbeteende gjordes som indata till beräkningarna. Två varianter av metoder testas för att genomföra beräkningarna i Umeå Energis nätberäkningsprogram dpPower. Den första innebär att man för varje anslutning (vid lågspänningsberäkning) och nätstation (vid mellanspänningsberäkning) anger en standardiserad produktion eller förbrukning, som man sedan kombinerar med den historiska förbrukning som ger värsta fallet. Den andra, snabbare metoden innebär att man använder en skalfaktor för att öka eller minska en historisk förbrukning så att beräkningen görs för det värsta fall av nettoproduktion/förbrukning på det beräknade området man vill studera. Metoderna bedöms fungera relativt väl för att bedöma belastningsnivåer, förutsatt att man vid tolkningen av resultat är medveten om att främst skalningsmetoden kan ge orealistiska siffror för förbrukning och produktion i vissa knutpunkter. Validering av spänningsberäkningarna genom jämförelse med data från elkvalitetsmätare som finns installerade i vissa nätstationer visar dock att programmet i många fall beräknar för stora spänningsfall. I några fall var skillnaden mot det uppmätta värdet upp till 65%. Det gör att metoderna i dagsläget inte kan användas för att bedöma effekten på spänningshållning. Ytterligare studier om vad felberäkningarna beror på göras så att felen kan åtgärdas innan de föreslagna metoderna kan användas för detta syfte.