Examensarbetet har utförts på uppdrag av Vattenfall Eldistribution AB. På driftcentralen i Trollhättan styr Vattenfall sitt svenska elnät. Vid spänningssättningen av en transformator parallellt med en som är i drift, fås ibland problem med att stationen löser ut. Fenomenet kallas internt för "sympati-utlösning". Problemet uppstår till viss del slumpmässigt och inträffar relativt sällsynt, på Vattenfall handlar det om ett några enstaka fall om året som direkt kan kopplas till fenomenet. Det gör att det finns ett begränsat antal gamla fall att utgå från och därför baseras stora delar av projektet på intervjuer samt ett väldokumenterat fall i en av Vattenfalls stationer. Utifrån den rapporten har en modell av stationen skapats i PSCAD EMTDC och modifierats för att skapa en situation där fenomenet alltid uppstår. Målet med projektet har varit att hitta förslag på åtgärder och för att sedan testa dessa i PSCAD för att se om de förbättrar situationen. De lösningar som har testats är att ändra inkopplingsögonblicket, justera lindningskopplarens läge, alternativ spänningssättning från transformatorns sekundärsida, transformatorernas kopplingsart samt betydelsen av ett svagare nät. Även teoretisk undersökning av huruvida inkopplingsmotstånd, synkroniseringsdon och snedställda brytare påverkar problemet har utförts. Rapporten visar att inkopplingsögonblicket har stor betydelse. Vid en inkoppling i rätt ögonblick med hjälp av synkroniseringsdon kan inkopplingen ske helt utan inverkan på nätet eller granntransformatorn. Snedställda brytare har visat sig genom resonemang vara sämre än synkroniseringsdon. Simuleringar och tidigare litteratur har visat att chanserna för en lyckad inkoppling kan förbättras genom att ställa lindningskopplaren i det ändläge som ger högst omsättning. Vad gäller transformatorernas kopplingsart så visade sig Y-d vara bättre än Y-y, som är standard på Vattenfall. Det är även standard att koppla in transformatorer från primärsidan. Simuleringar har däremot visat att en inkoppling från sekundärsidan skulle innebära flera fördelar. Slutligen innebär ett svagare nät en ökad risk för att fenomenet ska inträffa. Det skydd som har visat sig vara mest benäget att lösa ut är jordströmsskyddet i den matande ledningen. Beroende på hur läget ser ut i en specifik station kan det vara bra att se över inställningarna i jordströmsskyddets fjärde steg och eventuellt förlänga tidsfördröjningen. / This Bachelor's Thesis has been produced in cooperation with Vattenfall Eldistribution AB. In the center of operations in Trollhättan, they manage their electric grid in Sweden. During the energizing process of a transformer in parallel with another one in use, the station sometimes becomes disconnected. This phenomenon is called "sympathetic disconnection". It occurs in some way randomly and is fairly uncommon. At Vattenfall it occurs a couple of times every year. This means that there are few cases to study and therefore most of the project is based upon interviews and one well-documented case. Based on that case, a computer model was created in PSCAD EMTDC and modified to create a situation where the phenomenon always occurs. The goal for this project was to find some strategies and test those in PSCAD to see if they would make the situation better. The different types of strategies tested are to change the point of circuit-breaker operation, the tap changer, an alternative energizing from the secondary side, different winding connections and the significance of a strong network. A theoretical analysis of the importance of an inrush limiting resistor and synchronized switching was also made. The results show that the time of the circuit-breaker operation is of great importance. With support of synchronized switching an energizing can be done completely without affecting the feeding grid, nor the parallel transformer. Individual breakers seems to be worse than just sensing the voltage zero crossing and operating all the breakers simultaneously. The simulations have shown that some measures can improve the chances of a successful energizing. The tap-changer should be set in the position with the largest ratio. A wye-delta connected transformer is better than a wye-wye connected, which is the standard at Vattenfall. It is also standard to energize transformers from the primary side. Simulations have shown that an energizing from the secondary side would result in several benefits. At last, a strong network is preferred. The earth-fault protection relay in the feeding line is most prone to cause a disconnection. Therefore, depending on the situation, a change in the time setting in the relay's fourth step should be considered.

The transition towards a renewable electrical power system, characterized by an increased share of intermittent power sources, involves several technical, economical, structural and regulatory challenges in order to secure a reliable and stable power grid. Residential apartment buildings are increasingly being equipped with photovoltaic systems which are assumed to be supplemented with distributed energy storage solutions in the near future. To facilitate an efficient network utilization in the future an external broker, a so called aggregator, is currently being discussed in the industry as a possibility to enable the exchange of energy services between a collection of end consumers and electricity operators. The aim of this study is to investigate the prospects for an aggregator in the segment of residential apartment buildings in Sweden. A sociotechnical perspective has been applied in the study as the envisioned transition of the power grid involves a broad spectrum of interdisciplinary variables. The study is based on literature studies and interviews with stakeholder representatives. The results of the study shows that the prospects for aggregators depends on a still pending massmarket availability of technological prerequisits for managing the complex interaction between different parts of the electrical system. In addition, new regulatory structures will be essential in shaping the future conditions that would in general facilitate a successful transition and stable generation of arbitrage revenue.

Detta examensarbete har utförts på Elnätsavdelningen vid Elverket i Vallentuna med målet att analysera tariffernas kostnadsriktighet, ge underlag för en eventuell övergång till effekttariffer samt beskriva hur en sådan övergång skall ske. Nuvarande tariffsystem är uppdelat mellan säkringstariffer och effekttariffer, och med hjälp av teoristudie och beräkningar ska det bestämmas om en total övergång till effekttariffer är hållbar och ekonomisk. Denna rapport redovisar även en kartläggning och analys av Svenska elnätföretags effekttariffer samt vid vilken säkringsgräns de valt att sätta tariffövergången på och varför. Då debitering av elnätstaxa blir rättvisare med effekttariffer så är det lämpligt att gå över från att ha säkringstariff till en effekttariff för samtliga kunder. Detta är inget som förändrar kunders förbrukning under en kort tidsperiod utan det ses som en långsiktig plan som förhoppningsvis kommer medföra en nedskärning av effekttopparna genom ett ändrat kundbeteende. / This Bachelor´s thesis has been carried out at Elverket Vallentuna department of powerlines with the intention to analyze the cost correctness of the tariffs, provide a basis for an eventual transition into power tariffs as well as describe how such a transition shall be done. The current tariff system is divided into two different categories which are fuse tariffs and power tariffs. With the help of a theory study as well as additional calculations it will be determined if a complete transition into power tariffs is both economical and valid. This study also reports a survey and an analysis of the Swedish powerline companies power tariffs and what limit they have chosen to put on the transition as well as why. As the charge of the tariff electricity network becomes more justified with the use of power tariffs the switch from fuse tariffs to power tariffs becomes appropriate for all customers. This is not something which changes the short time consumption but instead should be viewed as a long term plan which hopefully leads to a lower amount of power peaks through a changed customer behavior.

På uppdrag av Preemraffs teknikavdelning har en systemanalys av Preemraff Göteborgs eldistributionssystem genomförts. Arbetet består av två delar, och dess huvudmål är att få en förbättrad kännedom av anläggningens aktuella status. I den första delen byggs en modell av raffinaderiets eldistributionssystem upp i ett modelleringsprogram för elektriska distributionssystem. Modellen är tänkt att användas av Preems teknikavdelning vid såväl frågor i den dagliga driften som vid projektering av utbyggnader och förändringsarbeten av eldistributionssystemet. I arbetets andra del genomförs analys på en begränsad del av anläggningen. Analysen består av kontroll av kortslutningsströmmars storlek, kontroll av selektivitet samt kontroll av spänningsfall vid motorstarter. En grov kontroll av ledig kapacitet i respektive anläggningsdel har också utförts. Teori för att ge förståelse för de olika komponenternas funktion och deras inbördes samspel presenteras. Gällande standarder och deras beräkningsmetoder avhandlas. Extra vikt läggs vid kortslutningsberäkningar. Elanläggningens tekniska utformning introduceras, vilken sedan följs av en beskrivning över hur modelleringen är utförd med avseende på antagande och vissa specialfall. Resultaten visar att kortslutningsströmmarna i de flesta delar av anläggningen håller sig på en önskvärd nivå. I ett ställverk överskrids tillåtet maxvärde något. Motorstarter innebär för de kontrollerade ställverken inte spänningssänkningar större än vad som anses acceptabelt. Med avseende på selektivitet har anläggningen potential för att uppnå selektiv frånkoppling på de flesta kontrollerade punkterna. Det framgår att den aktuella driftläggningen, med tillslagna sektioneringsbrytare mellan ställverkens A- och B-sida, hindrar selektiv felbortkoppling. I selektivitetsanalysen som gjorts utifrån sektionerad drift, framgår att vissa justeringar behöver göras för att uppnå god selektivitet. Eldistributionssystemet är i huvudsak konstruerat för att medge redundans enligt n-1 kriteriet. Av resultatet framgår att ett fåtal ställverk är belastade i den grad, att deras transformatorer skulle bli överbelastade vid bortfall av en transformator. I rapportens slut ges förslag på driftomläggningar som anses kunna optimera anläggningen. Vidare ges även förslag på investeringsåtgärder som ur ett energimässigt perspektiv skulle förbättra anläggningen. / On behalf of the technology department at Preemraff, a system analysis of the electrical distribution system has been performed. The work consists of two parts, and its main purpose is to give a better knowledge of the plants status. In the first part, a model of the refinery’s electrical distribution system is built in a program for network analysis. The model is intended to help Preemraff’s technology department in both the daily operation but also for expansion projects and changes in the electrical distribution system. In the second part of the work, an analysis of a limited part of the plant is performed. The analysis consists of verification of short-circuit currents, selectivity and simulation of voltage drop during start of electrical motors. A rough check of free capacity in respective part of the plant is also performed. Theory to give the reader understanding of the various components function and mutual interaction is presented. Existing standards and their calculation methods are discussed. Additional attention is paid to calculation of short-circuits. The technical configuration of the electrical plant is introduced, followed by a description of the modelling with respect to suppositions and some special cases. The results show that the short-circuit currents are in an acceptable level in most part of the plant. In one switchgear, the short-circuit current are somewhat exceeded. Start of electrical engines does not contribute to a voltage drop above acceptable levels in the part of the plant that was investigated. With respect to selectivity the plant has the potential to achieve selective disconnection at most of the investigated points. It is shown that the present operation mode, with switched on breakers between the switchgears A- and B-side prevent selective disconnection. The selectivity analysis is performed with the premise that A- and B-side is sectioned. With those premises, it shows that some adjustment is needed to achieve good selectivity. The electric distribution system is mainly constructed to permit redundancy for the n-1 criteria. The results show that a few switchgears are loaded to the point that their transformers will be overloaded with a single transformer fault. At the end of the report, proposal on operation diversions that is considered to optimize the plant is given. Suggestions on investments that would improve the plant in an energy term perspective is also given.

Detta examensarbete har utförts på uppdrag av Trollhättan Energi Elnät AB och Uddevalla Energi Elnät AB. Arbetet är en förstudie till en eventuell sammankoppling mellan de båda bolagens 12 kV elnät vid den gemensamma koncessionsgränsen i landsbygdsområdet Öresjö. Förstudien utreder om en sammankoppling av elnäten är möjlig utifrån tekniska och ekonomiska aspekter med förutsättningen att Trollhättan Energi Elnät AB har kablifierat sitt elnät i området. Toleransen för avbrott i elleveransen minskar i samhället och ställer krav på elnätens leveranssäkerhet. Lagkrav medför att elnätsägare är skyldiga att betala ut en ersättning till de kunder som drabbats av oplanerade avbrott längre än tolv timmar. En eventuell sammankoppling skulle ge bolagen ytterligare en reservmatningsmöjlighet i området och därigenom öka leveranssäkerheten för de bådaelnäten. En sammankoppling av elnäten är möjlig mellan Trollhättan Energis Elnät AB:s nätstation Hedetorpet och Uddevalla Energi Elnät AB:s nätstation T185 Fiskaretorpet vilka är placerade en kilometer från varandra. Elnätsberäkningar har utförts, utgående från två tänkbara driftfall med två olika lastströmmar, vilka visar att de båda elnäten har tillräcklig kapacitet för att klara av en sammankoppling. Vid en sammankoppling behöver bolagen kompensera för de ökade jordfelströmmarna i elnäten. Ledningssträckningen är planerad längs landsväg 2027 där en 150 mm2 totaltät aluminium PEX-kabel förläggs. Förslagsvis placeras en ny nätstation, innehållande en 100 kVA:s transformator mellan de ovan nämnda nätstationerna med ett högspänningskabelskåp, om så önskas, placerat på koncessionsgränsen för att kringgå en ansökan om koncession för linje. Kostnaden för projektet, vilken sammanställts utifrån EBR:s projekteringskatalog P2, beräknas uppgå till 1.5 miljoner kronor inklusive ett kostnadstillägg på 10 % för oförutsedda kostnader. / This bachelor’s thesis has been carried out on behalf of Trollhättan Energi Elnät AB and Uddevalla Energi Elnät AB. This is a preliminary study of a possible interconnection between the two companies 12 kV electric power networks at the joint concession border in the rural area Öresjö. It’s the technical and economic aspects of an interconnection that has been studied. The tolerance for interruptions in the electricity supply is decreasing in society which requires high service reliability from the electricity network operators. Due to legal requirements the electricity network operators are obliged to compensate customers which are affected by unplanned interruptions longer than twelve hours. A possible interconnection would provide the operators with an additional stand-by supply in the area and thereby increase the service reliability. The interconnection of the two electricity grids is possible between the substations Hedetorpet and T185 Fiskaretorpet who are situated one kilometer from each other. Calculations have been carried out on the basis of two possible approaches with two different load currents, which shows that the two power grids have sufficient capacity to cope with an interconnection. The two electricity network operators will have to compensate for the increased ground fault currents in the electricity grid. The planned rout for the new line will follow the road 2027 and will consist of a 150 mm2 aluminum PEX-cable and a new substation containing a 100 kVA:s transformer. In order to avoid the application for line concession a high voltage cable cabinet could be placed on the concession line. The budget for an interconnection between the two electricity grids, which has been compiled from EBR's design directory P2, is estimated to 1.5 million SEK including an additional fee of 10 % for unforeseen costs.

Idag är elnätet i Norrland särskilt känsligt för avbrott. Norrlandsnätet har hög andel radiella luftledningar och med allt större krav på leveranssäkerhet är reservkraftsmatning ofta nödvändig för att klara kraven. Genom att studera Vattenfalls rapporter vid avbrott samlades nödvändig data om fel som överstiger lagstadgade tider. Observationer i Vattenfalls nätverksinformationssystem låg till grund för bedömningen av nätets uppbyggnad i området. Informationen om data på relevanta anläggningsdelar hämtades från tillverkarens datablad. Tillgången till reservkraft är idag ojämnt fördelad där det generellt ses att känsliga områden har klart mindre tillgång till reservkraft än mindre känsliga områden. Utöver det används inte den tillgängliga reservkraften i den utsträckning det skulle vara möjligt för det kan ses som slöseri med resurser. En förflyttning av viss reservkraft till områden med hög felfrekvens är lämpligt för att minska ersättningar som måste betalas ut till nätkunderna då avbrottstiden blir för lång. Vidare undersöktes under projektet om felbortkoppling inom rimlig tidsram uppfylls vid reservmatning. Detta resulterade i en tabell som kan användas för att kontrollera om den inkopplade matningen ger den nödvändiga kortslutningsströmmen som krävs för att säkerställa felbortkoppling. / Today, the power grid in the Swedish province of Norrland is particularly sensitive to interruptions. With a high proportion of overhead and radial lines and increasing demand on reliability of the power supply means backup power supply is often necessary to meet the requirements. By studying interruption reports available at Vattenfall the necessary data about faults that exceed statutory periods was gathered. Observations in Vattenfalls network information system formed the basis for the assessment of the grid structure in the area. Information about the data on the relevant plant sections was retrieved via the manufacturers' datasheets. Today access to the back-up power is unevenly distributed where sensitive areas in general have considerably less access to back-up power than less sensitive areas. In addition, the available back-up power is not used to the extent it would be possible because it can be seen as a waste of resources. Relocation of some back-up power to areas with high fault rates is suggested in order to reduce the compensation that must be paid to the customers in case of long power outages. It was also examined during the project if proper fault disconnection within a reasonable time frame is met. This resulted in a table that can be used to verify if the connected power supply has the required short-circuit power to ensure fault disconnection.

The electrical grid needs to be changed in the future in order to manage more distributed and renewable generation and also to make it possible for electricity consumers to be more active and aware of their electricity consumption. This future grid is usually referred to as a smart grid. With the transition to a smart grid, new challenges occur. One method to determine those challenges is to perform risk and vulnerability analyses. InStockholm, the new urban district Stockholm Royal Seaport is built. The district has a strong environmental profile and the electricity grid in the area is formed into a smart grid. Responsible for constructing the smart grid is Fortum. The purpose of this master thesis has been to develop a method for risk and vulnerability analyses for smart grids. To achieve the purpose, the following questions have been answered: What are the risks and challenges in a smart grid? What do current methods for risk and vulnerability analyses for electricity networks look like? How can a method be developed for risk and vulnerability analyses for smart grids? What are the risks in the smart grid in Stockholm Royal Seaport? Focus in the thesis has been on distribution level and risks that lead to power outages. Some of the smart grid technologies, such as energy storage, will not be included in the early stages in the development of the smart grid in Stockholm Royal Seaport, and are not addressed in this thesis. The risks that have been identified for smart grids are mainly about challenges in communication and how information is handled, maintenance, and the transition of the grid structure. Electricity companies perform risk and vulnerability analyses for their electrical networks regarding delivery security. This means that the risks examined are such that if they do occur they can lead to power outages that lasts more than 24 hours, or shorter depending on power load. The risks are divided into five different categories and the consequences of the risks are determined after how long time it takes to fix them when they have led to a power outage. To obtain a functioning method for risk and vulnerability analyses for smart grids an additional category has been added. This category is called information security and includes risks related to information and communication technology. The method has been tested on the intended grid in Stockholm Royal Seaport. The most important risks that have been identified in the smart grid are integration of new components and systems, cooperation between participants, lack of information management and interruption in communication network.

An important process for grid companies in order to reduce power losses in electricity distribution grids is to figure out where and how they appear. This report describes the factors that cause power losses in low voltage distribution grids and methods for how they could be measured and analyzed. Measurement data for consumed and injected energy were collected for twelve low voltage distribution grids owned by Gävle Energi AB in order to analyze the size of the power losses and how the measurement uncertainty affects the collected data. Then models of three of the grids were created in MATLAB in order to analyze the data and the power losses were calculated to be compared to the collected data. Curve fitting were also used as a method in order to analyze the power losses from collected data. The results show that the losses in the studied grids are low. The measurement uncertainty is also low when losses are studied for long time periods, but high when losses are studied for short periods such as single hours. The calculated power losses from the MATLAB calculations seem to be lower than the measured power losses, which could indicate that a more complex model is needed for these kinds of studies. With a good interaction between the grid information system and the system that is storing measurement data it should be possible for grid companies to chart their power losses and with an accurate model of the grids the power losses can be calculated theoretically which should make it possible to analyze the causes of power losses in low voltage distribution grids.

<p>The effects from a planned wind farm on the grid utility Gävle Energis electrical grid have been studied. The wind farm is planned to be built in the forest 15 km north of Gävle and will have 23 turbines with rated power from 2 to 2.5 MW, resulting in a total installed power between 46 MW and 57.5 MW. The grid connection will be made at 70 kV. The aim of the analysis was to determine what effects the wind farm would have on the power grid in the form of electrical disturbances (flicker etc.), need for new investment and raised operational cost. To allow the connection of the wind farm technical solutions (new lines, power stations and grid reinforcements) have been constructed. The effects and need for further investment if a larger wind farm is built have also been studied. Calculations of the electrical noise where made, using data for 5 different wind turbines, and compared to the maximum allowable levels. Connections using both overhead lines and cables where studied. The majority of costs used in the economical analysis where taken from EBR:s widely used cost catalogue. The analysis shows that 57.5 MW can be installed with all the turbine models. The need for new investment depends on the line used but is in the range of 38.300.000 SEK to 61.100.000 SEK. Up to 63 MW can be installed without any further investment and up to 98 MW if further investment is made.</p>

The effects from a planned wind farm on the grid utility Gävle Energis electrical grid have been studied. The wind farm is planned to be built in the forest 15 km north of Gävle and will have 23 turbines with rated power from 2 to 2.5 MW, resulting in a total installed power between 46 MW and 57.5 MW. The grid connection will be made at 70 kV. The aim of the analysis was to determine what effects the wind farm would have on the power grid in the form of electrical disturbances (flicker etc.), need for new investment and raised operational cost. To allow the connection of the wind farm technical solutions (new lines, power stations and grid reinforcements) have been constructed. The effects and need for further investment if a larger wind farm is built have also been studied. Calculations of the electrical noise where made, using data for 5 different wind turbines, and compared to the maximum allowable levels. Connections using both overhead lines and cables where studied. The majority of costs used in the economical analysis where taken from EBR:s widely used cost catalogue. The analysis shows that 57.5 MW can be installed with all the turbine models. The need for new investment depends on the line used but is in the range of 38.300.000 SEK to 61.100.000 SEK. Up to 63 MW can be installed without any further investment and up to 98 MW if further investment is made.