This study focuses on the Lummi Indian fishers of Northwest Washington State, and the manner in which they have been included in and excluded from the commercial fishing industry over the past one hundred years. The approach to be taken in this situation of internal dependency is to examine access to resources. The control of productive resources — land, water, timber, minerals, and fish. — that Indians own or have access to, presents an ideal starting point for understanding Indian underdevelopment. Prior to and immediately after the time the Lummi were confined to a reservation, they were engaged in a traditional fishery that met their needs for subsistence and had the potential to develop into a viable commercial endeavor. The penetration of capital into the commercial salmon fishery of North Puget Sound initially utilized Lummi labor, but the development of new extractive technologies and an increase in the availability of labor of other ethnicities rapidly circumvented the need for Indian labor. Concomitantly, throughout the early 1900s, efforts by the State of Washington to curtail Indian fishing resulted in the Lummi being confined to a small reservation fishery of insignificant commercial potential. In the 1940s, when Lummi exclusion from the fishery was almost total, the need for fishers suddenly became acute, and the Lummi were once again incorporated into the commercial salmon fishery. Nevertheless, the post-war era again saw new developments in the salmon industry, and, no longer needed by the processors, the Lummi were once again squeezed out of the industry. Sympathetic court cases in the late 1960s and early 1970s guaranteed commercially significant fishing opportunity for the Lummi. Nevertheless, the present Lummi salmon fishery is not going to provide the Lummi with a viable economic base. The manner in which the fishery has developed is causing the majority of the economic yield of the fishery to be siphoned off to non-Lummi interests. Utilizing ethnohistorical and ethnographic data, this study examines a dependency approach to understanding Lummi underdevelopment. By focusing primarily on economic and political dependency on the United States Federal Government, this study shows how the Lummi community was incorporated into the dominant society and became a dependent community suffering from chronic underdevelopment, despite access to and utilization of a valuable natural resource. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

The Ellensburg Formation, preserved in the Nile basin 50 km northwest of Yakima, Washington, consists of a series of middle to late Miocene epiclastic and pyroclastic rock assemblages rich in porphyritic hornblende-biotite dacite. Geochemical, petrographic, and stratigraphic correlations indicate that Old Scab Mountain, a dacite porphyry intrusion, located at the western margin of the basin (lat. 46°53'30", long. 121°13'00"), is the probable source for much of the upper Ellensburg volcaniclastic material in the basin. The dacite intrusion exposed at Old Scab Mountain was emplaced at depths of 1 to 3 km and underlaid a now eroded volcanic edifice. This volcanic center is interpreted to have been active during the time of deposition of the upper Ellensburg Formation. AK-Ar age of 8.75 ± 0.20 Ma for an adjacent sill of similar dacite suggests an age for Old Scab Mountain between 9 to 7 Ma (Smith, 1988a). This age corresponds with the upper Ellensburg Formation which stratigraphically overlies Grande Ronde Basalt lava flows of the Columbia River Basalt Group, within the basin. Stratigraphic reconstruction of the Nile basin deposits indicates a dome collapse eruptive style. Progressive dome growth was punctuated by short-lived eruptions resulting in dome collapse and deposition of debris-avalanche and lahar deposits. These deposits were remobilized by fluvial processes which generated thick conglomerates and interstratified volcanic sandstones. Upper Ellensburg deposits and dacite of Old Scab Mountain are calc-alkaline and medium-K in composition. Silica content ranges from 53 to 67 weight percent Si02 for upper Ellensburg deposits and 66 to 67 weight percent Si02 for dacite of Old Scab Mountain. Older deposits composing the lower Ellensburg Formation are interbedded with and underlie the Grande Ronde Basalt. The lower Ellensburg deposits are typically more tholeiitic, range from 56 to 74 weight percent Si02 , and show slightly higher trace element concentrations than the upper Ellensburg deposits. These deposits were possibly derived from other dacite centers located near the headwaters of the adjacent Naches basin.

The threefold question researched herein is: (1) What are the extent and potential economic consequences of land parcelization in Klickitat County?, (2)What are the political and social costs of parcelization?, and (3) What measures today are, or could be, used to ameliorate the land use conflict? These are answered by studying the various aspects of the problem, including the historic land use change, legal mechanisms which regulate livestock grazing and land parcelization; taxation; the economic-effect upon livestock production; crime and social conflict; costs to county services; and environmental impacts. The geography of the change itself is depicted on several maps.

Dam removals are becoming increasingly common as dams reach their life expectancy and face costly upgrades associated with relicensing. Though removal is often viewed as a success in terms of ecological restoration, it also represents a major disturbance to an area. Previous research has shown that native species do not survive as well at these disturbed sites, and invasive species often dominate. This study examines the vegetation response in the drained reservoir area after the removal of Hemlock Dam on Trout Creek, a tributary to the Wind River in southern Washington. Transects were established and quadrats were sampled to determine the plant classifications and cover of vegetation and to examine possible correlations between environmental variables and the spatial distribution of plant classification groups. Sampling took place in the third and fourth years following dam removal, and the data was analyzed to determine significant changes and relationships. The results of this study showed that the site was dominated by a volunteer native forb Lotus purshianus (Spanish clover) and a planted native tree Alnus rubra (red alder). Most of the other species found were native volunteer forbs and grasses characteristic of early succession in this region. Both invasive species and planted species, with the exception of Alnus rubra, had low canopy covers. There was a significant increase in native plant canopy cover, as well as total canopy cover, from 2012 to 2013. There were also significant relationships between plant classification groups and environmental variables, including soil infiltration, elevation, and distance from stream. This study will help inform resource managers about the kinds of plants that will volunteer after dam removals and the possible success of re-vegetation projects.

Pacific lamprey is a culturally valuable species to indigenous people, and has significant ecological importance in freshwater and marine ecosystems. Over the past several decades, constrictions in range and reductions in Pacific lamprey abundance have been observed in Western North America, and may be indicators of range-wide declines. In the face of declining populations, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has partnered with tribal, state, federal, and local entities to implement a regional Pacific lamprey conservation agreement aimed at reducing threats to Pacific lamprey and improving their habitats and population status. Research needs identified in the conservation agreement include assessing larval Pacific lamprey occupancy and distribution, habitat requirements, and the limiting factors of larval distribution in the freshwater ecosystem. As part of the effort to address these knowledge gaps, we investigated the potential for larval lampreys to occur in tidally-influenced estuarine environments. Research of this type may be valuable for future conservation, management or recovery efforts of Pacific lamprey throughout its range. We employed a two-phased approach, consisting of laboratory and field components to address our aims. We first conducted a series of controlled laboratory experiments to evaluate osmotic stress tolerance and osmoregulatory status of larval Pacific lamprey exposed to a range of (1) fixed salinity in various dilutions of saltwater and (2) oscillating salinity treatments designed to simulate tidal activity. Tolerance was assessed by monitoring and comparing survival of larvae in various treatments through 96 h. Osmoregulatory status was assessed by quantifying and comparing total body water content, plasma osmolality, and plasma cation (i.e., sodium) concentrations among larvae surviving various treatments. In fixed salinity experiments, 100% survival was observed in 0‰, 6‰, 8‰ and 10‰ through 96 h, while 0% survival was observed through 48 h in 12‰, 30 h in 15‰, and 12 h in 25‰ and 35‰. In oscillating salinity experiments, on the other hand, a significant increase in survival (100%) was observed through 96 h in treatments that oscillated between 12‰ and 0‰ (freshwater) at about 6 h intervals versus fixed 12‰ salinity experiments. A significant increase in survival also occurred in oscillating 15‰ treatments (60%) versus fixed 15‰ through 96 h. Linear regression analysis indicated higher environmental salinity in laboratory experiments was significantly related to increases in plasma osmolality and plasma sodium (the most abundant osmotically active plasma cation) concentrations, and concurrent decreases in total body water content among larvae that survived various treatments. Tidal oscillations in salinity appeared to temper the desiccating effects of salinity, as changes in body water content and sodium ion concentration were less abrupt than fixed salinity treatments. These results suggest larvae cannot osmoregulate in hyperosmotic environments, but are able to tolerate some fixed and oscillating hyperosmotic salinity exposure. Consequently, larvae may be able to occur in certain areas of estuaries, such as oligohaline habitats that are characterized by low levels of salinity. Experimental results were used, in part, to guide larval sampling in a tidally-influenced habitat. Occurrence of larval Pacific lamprey and Lampetra spp. (western brook and river lampreys) was subsequently investigated across a gradient of salinity in Ellsworth Creek (Pacific County, Washington) by electrofishing. Larval Pacific and Lampetra spp. were detected within an approximately 300 m long tidally-influenced segment of the study area. Salinity monitoring was conducted in six tidally-influenced reaches where larvae were detected for up to 14 d following electrofishing. Maximum tidal cycle salinity exceeded 15 ppt during 52% to 80% of tidal cycles within tidally-influenced reaches where larvae were detected. These results suggest potential for larval lamprey to occur in certain portions of tidal estuaries. However, long-term residence of larvae in tidally-influenced habitats and whether larvae are able to subsequently survive, grow, transform, and out-migrate is not known and requires further study. Given the potential for tidally-influenced habitats to be occupied by larvae, assessments of larval occurrence in other areas, such as the lower Columbia River, may be warranted. Knowledge of larval lamprey distribution in estuarine environments may be valuable for habitat restoration, and mitigating potential impacts from dredging and other human disturbances.

Over 1055 m of early Oligocene andesitic-dacitic volcaniclastic rocks and minor interbedded andesitic lava flows of the Ohanapecosh Formation are exposed in a dissected structural high in the southern Washington Cascade Range, about 22 km southwest of Packwood, Washington. The exposed sequence of rocks in the study area are located approximately 250 m above the base of the Ohanapecosh Formation. A lower sequence of deposits, about 350 m in thickness, are dominated by primary and reworked lithic lapilli-tuff and epiclastic channelized volcanic sandstone and conglomerate. These sediments are interpreted as pyroclastic flows and stream deposits, respectively. The upper sequence, about 455 m thick is dominated by volcanic diamictites interpreted as lahars, with minor lithic lapilli-tuff and epiclastic volcanic sandstone.

Located in central Washington State, Banks Lake serves as an irrigation storage reservoir for the Columbia Basin Irrigation Project and is home to a diverse fisheries population. The current hydrologic management strategies used for Banks Lake have been chosen to serve two purposes: to adequately store and provide irrigation water for the Columbia Basin Irrigation Project and to maintain a healthy aquatic environment suitable for the growth and habitation of local flora and fauna. Increased needs for irrigation water within arid central Washington poses additional challenges to reservoir managers so that irrigation needs are met without damaging the present aquatic environment within Banks Lake. Future plans by the Washington Department of Ecology to use Banks Lake storage to replenish ground water reserves of the Odessa Subarea aquifer have required an investigation into how increased seasonal drawdown may affect fish growth, fish habitat and overall limnology of Banks Lake. The goal of this project is to produce a hydrodynamic and water quality model of Banks Lake that can predict the impacts of management strategies on the lake's water quality and the linkage of lake management to fish habitat.

Coal-fired power plants constitute a significant source of energy production for the United States, and are projected to do so for decades to come. Most of the scrutiny coal-fired power plants receive is in the form of environmental concerns regarding green house gas emissions of carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and others. It is known that coal fly ash released through the stacks of coal power plants contains concentrated levels of naturally-occurring radiation, such as Radium-226. However, since the source of radiation is natural and the activity levels are low, there are no nuclear regulatory requirements imposed on coal plants. The focus of this study was to use the Nuclear Regulatory Commission’s (NRC) facility release criteria to determine whether the concentration of naturally occurring Radium-226 present in soil surrounding the Centralia Power Plant is elevated relative to soil collected 80 kilometers away. The non-parametric Wilcoxon Rank Sum test was used to compare twenty-eight soil samples collected within 3.4 kilometers of the Centralia Power Plant stacks against an equal number of reference samples collected in Port Orchard, Washington. It was determined that the average concentration of Radium-226 in soil near the power plant was 1.59 pCi/g, while the average concentration in reference soil was 0.59 pCi/g. The study suggests that the area around the power plant would fail to pass the release criteria of a NRC Multi-Agency Radiation Survey and Site Investigation (MARSSIM) Class 3 survey unit. If it is true that coal fired power plants increase background radiation levels measurably, but not at a level sufficient to cause alarm, it may be sensible to revise the strict emissions standards for nuclear facilities or increase requirements for utilities other than nuclear. / Graduation date: 2012

Master of Agribusiness / Department of Agricultural Economics / Mykel Taylor / Choosing a viable long-run crop investment can be risky and time consuming for farmers. The high establishment costs and risk for perennial tree crops like cherries require producers to conduct careful analysis prior to investing. Farmers must not only look to prices today but to the long term price trends that are likely affect the investment profitability. This thesis is an investment analysis on planting twenty-five acres of Sweetheart cherries in Washington State. The purpose is to calculate the total net present value over the commercially productive life of the cherry trees. Prices received by growers for sweet cherry production can fluctuate. Sweet cherries are also susceptible to yield volatility. Therefore, a sensitivity analysis was calculated that shows the changes in price and yield and its effect on net present value. Sweet cherry production for fresh market is also labor intensive. Changes in labor supply and minimum wage can affect a farmers profit margins. This thesis evaluates the risk of a wage shock to the total net present value of the investment. The net present value calculated was found to be positive, making planting Sweetheart cherries a viable option for Hillslide Orchards. The internal rate of return was favorable at 12.30% return. Yield risk was relatively low in this model showing positive net present values at 60% over base yield and still positive at 40% below base yields. The price risk was found to be slightly higher with negative net present values below $1.00 or 20% below the base price. It is important to note that this model represents planting a block of Sweetheart cherries within an existing operation. There are additional costs that would be incurred for other farm operations, not modeled here that could decrease the overall profitability under alternative planting scenarios.

Widely differing theoretical expectations exist concerning the economic performance of labor-managed firms or producer cooperatives (PCs). While a good number of theoretical studies of these firms by economists have been undertaken, there remain considerable gaps in the empirical record. This is especially true in the case of American PCs. In general, theoretical controversies have not been tempered by enough empirical analysis. While some expect good performance from PCs, others are much less sanguine. This study compares the economic performance of a group of eight worker-owned producer co-op plants with that of eight conventional mills in the Pacific Northwest softwood plywood industry. The purpose is to test the validity of several propositions that are typically maintained in the analysis of PCs suggesting that this type of organization basically lacks the incentive to utilize labor inputs efficiently, and is therefore less productive when compared to conventionally organized producing units. Using secondary data, pooled time-series cross-section equations are estimated. Results indicate that growth in annual output per employee per year is 18 percent greater in the co-ops than in their conventional counterparts. The study provides strong evidence that the two groups of plants differ significantly in their behavior. The major conclusion that emerges is that worker-owned co-ops are a viable and productive form of economic organization that utilize labor inputs efficiently and in doing so can achieve higher worker productivity than their conventional counterparts. In a public policy context, government support of employee ownership and establishment of worker-owned co-ops is viewed as a viable policy option to plant closings.