Sustainable Built Environments Senior Capstone Project / Across the world, populations continue to grow while water supplies stay fixed. In the American Southwest, water supplies are at an all time low, yet warm, favorable conditions continue to lure residents to the area. With some of the country’s lowest fresh water reserves, it is imperative that changes are made to water usage trends and associated energy inefficiencies. An analysis of water usage in Tucson was conducted to evaluate potential solutions for reducing consumption and to correspondingly shrink energy usage. Case studies were investigated, census numbers were used to roughly calculate statistics, existing knowledge on water conservation techniques were researched, and alternative water filtration as well as distribution systems were scrutinized for their viability amongst current infrastructure. The potential to reduce water usage is greatest with the largest user of water in Tucson, the single-family residence. On average the single-family residence is capable of effectively saving nearly 25,000 gallons of water per year with efficient fixtures, another 25,000 gallons per year by reducing outdoor water use by half, and another 10,625 gallons by utilizing rainwater harvesting. Combine those savings and multiply them by the 225,000-240,000 single-family residents estimated to be in Tucson and the savings reach more than five billion gallons a year, effectively almost cutting water consumption in Tucson by a fifth. Further, to keep remaining usage impacts negligible, implementation of an indirect or direct potable water reuse system could satisfy populations for decades by reusing water that would normally be discarded as effluent. Water consumption must be curved so that it can satisfy a growing population’s needs. Amongst residents of Tucson, single-family residences have the greatest potential to reduce water and associated energy needs. Through conservation techniques, water harvesting, reducing outdoor water usage, and potable reuse, limited water supplies can satisfy future generations to come.

This thesis examines the relationship between water and the winemaking industry through an integrated architectural approach to the landscape. The emphasis is on the refinement of water use for vineyard irrigation and wine processing, and the promotion of the value of water by celebrating a productive landscape. The proposition is explored through the design of a winery and its associated grapes to produce the wines.

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The aim of this study was to investigate the microbiological quality of drinking water at the source (taps at eThekwini laboratories, standpipes and mobile community tankers) and corresponding point-of-use (storage containers and ground tanks) supplied to peri-urban areas in Durban by eThekwini Municipality. It also aimed to identify factors associated with deterioration in water quality such as storage of water, household demographics, hygiene and sanitation practices. In order to determine the microbial quality of drinking water, the pour plate method (for enumeration of heterotrophic organisms) and the membrane filtration technique (for total coliforms and E. coli enumeration) were used. Conductivity, turbidity, pH and total and residual chlorine levels of drinking water were measured. Microbial and physico-chemical data was collated and statistically analysed with epidemiological data from an associated study to determine the link between microbial quality of drinking water, household demographics, health outcomes, socio-economic status, hygiene and sanitation practices. Findings showed that all point-of-use water was unsafe for human consumption as a result of either poor source water quality, in the case of standpipes, and microbial contamination at the point-of-use, in the case of ground tanks and community tankers. The latter could be attributed to unsanitary environments, poor hygiene practices or poor wateruse behaviour. Households which included children aged 0-5 years and in which open-top containers were used for water storage had the highest rates of diarrhoea and vomiting. Water from ground tanks had the best microbial quality but people in households using this water presented with the highest rate of diarrhoea. Therefore provision of microbially safe drinking water will not reduce the rate of health outcomes if addressed in isolation. In order to reduce water-associated illness, provision of safe and adequate amounts of water, hygiene and sanitation education and education on water-use behaviour should be provided as a package. The provision of improved water delivery systems does not ensure that drinking water is safe for human consumption. Measures, such as point-of-use water treatment should be considered to ensure that drinking water provided at the source and point-of-use is microbially safe for human consumption. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2009.

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For sustainable water management, here is a necessity to consider alternatives, in addition to conventional systems. The aim of this research is to develop and demonstrate a sustainables, from and greywater reclamation system for WC flushing and it was started in 1994. In the UK there are no water quality standards for WC flushing water use. There were no design guidelines for greywater water reclamation and no published study on the supply-dernandb alance, in detail, for water recycling in institutions such as universities. The research has shown the feasibility of planned direct grey and storm water reclamation and recycling system to manage growing water and wastewater problems. This thesis is based on the information gathered from 4 universities, 3 hotels and 3 recreational centres, and experiences gained at Loughborough University during the development and demonstration of the full scale "in-house grey and roof water" reclamation and recycling systems. The water use, greywater quality and roof water characteristics were studied in detail and this information was used for the development of the reclamation and recycling system. The studies showed that the water usage at the university halls were not similar to usage in households. Unlike large water supply schemes, small in-house systems generate a large peak factor for water use. To avoid deficit, in addition to personal washing waters, a top-up of laundry wastewater or roof water, and a well-designed balancing tank is necessary. The demonstration study shows that there was no standby mains' water used, which means that the water reclaimed was sufficient for reuse. The quality characterisation study shows that the greywater and first flush storm water roof runoff were polluted. The characteristics of combined grey and roof water are suitable for biological treatment. Based on the infomation, a lab-scale unit was developed; the reactor characteristics and performance such as head losses and removal efficiency were monitored; and the unit was refined. Two novel multi-barrier reclamation systems were developed to achieve sufficient quantity and near potable quality of water with minimum maintenance and cost. During 1997 the grey and roof water recycling system with laboratory tested physical and biological reclamation processes without the use of coagulants and disinfection were installed. The performance of the treatment system was closely monitored until 1998. This provided benefits in near potable quality of reclaimed water, low head loss, reliability, failure free operation and simple maintenance. The reclaimed effluent from Project I and 2 met the UK/EU bathing water standards and was also able to meet the US EPA standards for WC flushing. The microbial (using coliform as an indicators) quality of reclaimed water without disinfection is acceptable for controlled recycling systems (carefully monitored and fully informed). There were no odour problems in the treated water or sludge blockages. Comparatively, Project I was more efficient at removing coliform, turbidity, solids (suspended, dissolved, volatile), and Project 2 better at removing carbon (organic and inorganic). A simple cost benefit analysis done for the recycling system at Royce Hall of Residence showed 10 years pay back. More detailed cost-benefit analysis including comparisons of new built and retrofit recycling system and fife cycle analysis are recommended. This study shows that most of the people questioned were accepted and were willing to consider using the recycling system for toilet flushing, if the water was clear, colourless, odour free, carried no risk and gave cost-benefits. During the demonstration stage the users willingly accepted non-potable grey water reuse.

This research examined the toxicity of complex industrial effluents as measured by chemical analyses, whole effluent toxicity (WET) tests and surveys of the receiving water biota. Toxicity of final effluents from 45 diverse facilities was examined to determine whether inferred toxicity based on presence and concentration of priority substances could predict WET, calculated from a battery of bioassays on bacteria, cladocerans and algae. Following corrections of inferred toxicity for particle-bound contaminants and adjustment for free ion activity, correlation between inferred and whole effluent toxicity was highly significant. Effluents with elevated metal concentrations exhibited lower WET than predicted, likely due to negative interactions among trace metals; kraft mill effluents exhibited higher WET than predicted which is consistent with findings in the literature. / The ability of laboratory WET tests to predict thresholds of invertebrate community response to a complex industrial effluent was examined. Patterns in invertebrate community structure were detrended for environmental factors and compared to measured instream effluent concentrations. Laboratory effect thresholds, reported as Maximum Allowable Toxicant Concentrations (MATC), were calculated from a battery of toxicity tests on bacteria, algae, cladocerans and fish. Declines in taxonomic richness corresponded to calculated lab thresholds, while changes in abundance of total taxa and sensitive taxa, (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera) occurred at lower concentrations than predicted from MATCs. The tendency for invertebrate abundance to decline at lower instream effluent concentrations than richness supports findings in the literature. Lack of correspondence between lab and field thresholds may be ameliorated by the addition of behavior endpoints, (e.g. avoidance) to toxicity tests.

This thesis reports on research undertaken into the integration of water reuse systems into medium to high density residential developments in the semi-arid climate environment of metropolitan Adelaide. The research has focused on maximising the reuse of local water resources for residential lifestyle purposes, through the incorporation of relatively simple water sensitive systems into subdivision type developments, where allotments are less than 500 sq.m. / The quantities and qualities of the local water resources- roof runoff, surface runoff and wastewater- are considered and a paradigm for their reuse presented in which each local water resource is linked with a residential use sector- in-house, ex-house and public space- in order to minimise treatment requirements. On the basis of this paradigm a water sensitive residential model (WSRM) is developed. This model constitutes a subdivision layout which incorporates reuse systems while endeavouring to keep water systems infrastructure to a minimum. / Following on from this, the feasibility of the WSRM has been investigated by applying it to three conventional residential developments within metropolitan Adelaide. These are located in the suburbs of Mawson Lakes, Taperoo and Aldinga Beach. The specific physical, topographic and hydrogeological conditions associated with each site have required a flexible approach to the application of the model; and while a unique arrangement has been found for each site, the basic elements of the WSRM have provided an underlying consistent theme across them all. / Water balance modelling using the WaterCress program has been undertaken for each site to gain an understanding of the level of 'water-self-sufficiency' that might be achieved with the WSRM. Modelling results have indicated that between 50-70% of domestic water needs can be satisfied using local water resources. / An economic assessment has been undertaken of the WSRM from the point of view of development costs. The water reuse systems have been designed and costed for each site. Development fees and charges have also been ascertained. This has enabled a comparison to be made with the costs and development charges of conventional type developments. It is concluded that while the costs of the WSRM developments were consistently greater than for conventional developments, the increasing need for developers to contribute to external works relating to infrastructure and the environment is altering the balance. When account is given to these external costs, 'reuse' developments are at least as equally viable as conventional developments. / The research has produced a practical model to build reuse systems into the fabric of the residential development, significantly reducing reliance on the mains water supply and creating more sustainable developments. It has also shown that the economics of such developments are changing for the better. / Adelaide, like other Australian capital cities, is presently beset with complex issues relating to water supply, wastewater and stormwater management. Better management and more sustainable use of the available water resources is needed; maximisation of water reuse and more efficient use of local water resources are becoming increasingly important. / The trend in Australia today is for medium to high density housing for inner city infill or redevelopment sites and for outer suburb greenfield sites. Water sensitive residential developments within Australia, which have incorporated water reuse, have generally been located in high rainfall areas (average rainfall above 1200mm/year) and/or where the average allotment size is greater than 600 sq.m.. Two exceptions to this are the New Haven village and Mawson Lakes developments in the greater Adelaide region, where the average rainfall is around 500mm/year. In these two cases, however, reuse accounts mainly for ex-house water uses; in-house water uses are essentially serviced by the mains supply with toilets being the only exception. / Thesis (PhD)--University of South Australia, 2005.

Thesis (PhD)--University of South Australia, 2001.

Thesis (PhD) -- University of South Australia, 1999