Urban water use arises from a mix of scale-dependent biophysical and socioeconomic factors. In Portland, Oregon, single-family residential water use exhibits a tightly coupled relationship with summertime weather, although this relationship varies with land use patterns across households and neighborhoods. This thesis developed a multilevel regression model to evaluate the relative importance of weather variability, parcel land use characteristics, and neighborhood geographic context in explaining single-family residential water demand patterns in the Portland metropolitan area. The model drew on a high-resolution panel dataset of weekly mean summer water use over five years (2001-2005) for a sample of 460 single-family households spanning an urban-to-suburban gradient. Water use was found to be most elastic with respect to parcel-scale building size. Building age was negatively related to water use at both the parcel and neighborhood scale. Half the variation in water use can be attributed to between-household factors. Between-neighborhood variation exerted a modest but statistically significant effect. The analysis decomposed household temperature sensitivity into four components: a fixed effect common to all households, a household-specific deviation from the fixed effect, a separate extreme heat effect, and a land use effect, where lot size exaggerated the effect of temperature on water use. Results suggested that land use planning may be an effective non-price mechanism for long-range management of peak demand, as land use decisions have water use implications. The combined effects of population growth, urbanization, and climate change expose water providers to risk of water stress. Modeling fine-grain relationships among heat, land use, and water use across scales plays a role in long-range climate change planning and adaptation.

No description available.

Pastoralists tend to occupy highlands and drylands lands with uncertain climates and are experienced at coping with climatic variability and drought. Increasingly, however, the speed with which climate patterns are changing has become an issue of concern. This study examines household water management strategies of pastoralists in western Argentina. In this semi-arid region, pastoralists rely primarily on streams and springs fed by snow and glacier melt from the Andes, and have developed various strategies to meet their water needs. They also deal with myriad challenges posed by climate, economic, and socio-cultural change and work vigorously to maintain their herds – a combination of cattle, goats, and sheep – in this water scarce region. The goal of this study is to understand: 1) different household water management strategies; 2) the ways pastoral livelihoods are changing in response to changes in water supply; and 3) the socio-economic changes that affect pastoral livelihoods. Information from interviews, household surveys, and participant observations reveals that climate fluctuation impacts water supplies and use, herd size, and expenses made on tanks, technology, and infrastructure for the storage and transport of water, food for animals, and subsistence crops. Understanding the micro-scale, water practices of pastoral households provides insight into the ways rural populations in semi-arid and arid environments respond to changes in climate and meet their water needs. Moreover, these findings can contribute to scholarship on traditional and local knowledge and resource management systems, and may potentially inspire the development of adaptive management solutions.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Hospitality Management and Dietetics / Elizabeth Barrett / Water is essential for many aspects of daily life including restaurant operations and is necessary for generation and service of properly produced, safe food. However, water is becoming more scarce and expensive due to climate change, infrastructure needs, governmental budget constraints, and shifting water sources. The purpose of this study was to develop benchmarks for water usage and costs for casual dining restaurants (CDRs) in Kansas and identify demographics that may impact water usage and costs. The population for the study was the 952 CDRs in Kansas. Stratified random sampling selected 60 restaurants from five Kansas demographic regions. Data were collected from the local municipal water utilities, Kansas Department of Revenue, Google’s Place Page, and through telephone or on-site interviews with a manager. Results for 221 of 300 (74%) CDRs that responded indicated that on average 1,766 gallons of water were used each day per restaurant, 12.79 per gallons per day for each seat, 68 gallons per employee, and 0.73 gallons per interior square foot. These results were as much as 69% lower than those from a 2000 study conducted by Dziegielewski et al. Significant demographics that impacted water consumption were season of year, population (F= 9.763, p≤.001), menu (F= 2.921, p≤.035), type of ownership (F= 56.565, p≤.000), water source (F= 10.751, p≤.032), irrigation (F= 46.514, p≤.001) and days open (F= 6.085, p≤.000). A stepwise linear regression model (F= 33.676, p≤.000) found ownership (β= -.329, p ≤ 0.000), irrigation (β= -.290, p ≤ 0.000), and population (β= -.176, p ≤ 0.003) impacted water consumption. For water costs, CDRs paid an average of $6.54 per 1,000 gallons of water consumed and had mean annual expenses of $5,026 on revenues of $2,554,254 which was the equivalent of a water cost percent of 0.42. Demographics that impacted water costs were season of year, region (F = 3.167, p≤ 0.015), and water source (F = 4.692, p≤ 0.032). However, a stepwise linear regression model (F= 4.485, p ≤ 0.036) found only water source (β= -.152, p ≤ 0.036) was an indicator of the percentage of revenues related to cost of water. This study did identify benchmarks for water consumption and water costs that can be used in the future by restaurateurs. The primary limitations of the study were that results can only be generalized to casual dining restaurants in Kansas. Future studies can be conducted with different types of restaurants in Kansas and with CDRs in other areas.

A produção das culturas e, particularmente neste estudo, a de citros, associada às condições climáticas e edáficas, é função da presença de água e nutrientes no solo em época e quantidades apropriadas. Sua falta ou excesso é fator limitante à produção, determinando em muitos casos a sua diminuição. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi a avaliação do consumo de água de pomares de citros em Latossolo Vermelho-Amarelo Distrófico argissólico, pela determinação do balanço hídrico no solo, na busca de explicar cientificamente o comportamento hídrico dessa cultura neste solo ao longo do ano agrícola e a influência do consumo de água sobre a produtividade da cultura. O balanço hídrico foi conduzido em duas transeções com 20 plantas e 100 m de comprimento (7 x 4 m), localizadas no campo experimental de citros, Departamento de Produção Vegetal, Esalq/USP, município de Piracicaba (SP). A condutividade hidráulica para a profundidade controle (1,10 m) foi determinada pelo método do perfil instantâneo conduzido em área adjacente. O armazenamento foi determinado com o uso de sonda de nêutrons. A drenagem interna e/ou ascensão capilar foi medida pela leitura diária de três tensiômetros instalados na projeção da copa (2 m do tronco) das 40 plantas em três profundidades: 1,00 m, 1,10 m e 1,20 m. A precipitação pluvial foi medida por pluviôgrafo instalado na área e foi considerada normal para o período do ano monitorado (agosto-agosto). A extração de água por uma planta do pomar também foi medida pela instalação de tensiômetros nas profundidades 0.2 m, 0.4 m, 0.6 m, 0.8 m e 1.0 m e a 0.4 m, 0.8 m, 1.2 m, 1,6 m e 2.0 m do tronco em direção à linha e em direção à entrelinha. A evapotranspiração da cultura (ETc) média desta comunidade de plantas foi de 1271 mm, sendo a variação da ETc diária entre 0,4 e 8,3 mm dia -1 e a razão ETc/ECA variando entre 0,3 e 1,5 para os meses de menor e maior necessidade hídrica. A camada de 0,40 à 0,60 m de profundidade mostrou ser que a cultura de citros apresenta maior volume de raízes. Em futuros projetos de irrigação por gotejadores (irrigação localizada) para a cultura de citros, a distância de 0,40 m do tronco deve ser a adotada para a obtenção da melhor eficiência. / The agricultural yield and, particularly in this study, the citrus yield, associated to weather and soil conditions, is dependent on the presence of water and nutrients in the soil in appropriate amounts along the time. Its lack or excess is a limiting factor to the production, determining in many cases its decrease. The objective of the present work was to evaluate the water consumption by citrus orchards in a Latossolo Vermelho Amarelo(Oxisol), by the means of the soil water balance determination aiming at the scientific explanation of the hydric behavior of this crops in this soil, along the agricultural year, and the influence of the water consumption on the crop productivity. The soil water balance was determined in two transects, 100 m length (7 x 4 m) and 20 plants each, located at the experimental fields of the Vegetable Crop Department, Esalq/USP, Piracicaba (SP - Brazil). The hydraulic conductivity for the control depth (1,10 m) was determined by the instantaneous profile method carried out in an adjacent area. The water storage was measured by a neutron probe. The internal drainage and/or capillary rise was measured by the daily reading of three tensiometers installed under each one of the 40 trees (2 m from stem) at three depths: 1.00 m, 1.10 m and 1.20 m. The rainfall was measured by means of a pluviographer installed in the area and it was considered normal for the period of the monitored year (August-August). Water extraction of one plant of the orchard was also assessed installing tensiometers at the depths 0.2 m, 0.4 m, 0.6 m, 0.8 and 1.0 and 0.4 m, 0.8 m, 1.2 m, 1.6 m and 2,0 from the stem along and perpendicular to the plants line. The annual evapotranspiration of the crop (Etc) was 1271 mm and the daily one varied from 0.4 to 8.3 mm dia -1 . The ETc/ECA ratio varied from 0.3 to 1.5 for the months with lowest and highest water need. The soil layer in which the citrus presented the highest volume of roots was 0,40 - 0,60 m. In future drip irrigation projects (trickle irrigation) for the citrus, the distance of 0.40 m from stem should be adopted to obtain the highest irrigation efficiency.

A cana-de-açúcar não só é importante para a produção de açúcar, mas também por ser uma fonte alternativa potencial para os biocombustíveis. O Brasil tem a maior área cultivada de cana-de-açúcar no mundo, porém a àrea de expansão esta sendo realizada em regiões marginais, representando o estigaem uns dos principais problemas nestas novas áreas. O papel potencial de silício (Si) no fornecimento de tolerância contra estresses ambientais, sugere que o teor de Si em plantas pode ser uma abordagem viável para aumentar a resistência das plantas a vários fatores. Varios experimentos conduzidos no Brasil tem demostrado o efeito do Si sob a produção da cana. Diversas pesquisas relatam a interação entre o nitrogênio (N) e o Si, embora, para a cana-de-açúcar esta relação ainda não está clara, por um lado tem-se estudos que observaram que a interação não afetou o estado nutricional da cultura; por outro lado varias pesquisas reportam que a interação promove melhorias no crescimento da cana. Assim, com a hipótese de que, deve existir uma dose de N e Si que propicia a maior produtividade da água, o objetivo desta pesquisa foi avaliar o efeito do nitrogênio e do silício na produtividade da água, em biomassa e energia, para a cana-de-açúcar, analisando as variaveis relacionadas à biometria, à qualidade, e á produtividade da água. O experimento foi conduzido em uma casa de vegetação instalada na área experimental do Departamento de Engenharia de Biossistemas (LEB) da Escola Superior de Agricultura \"Luiz de Queiroz\" (ESALQ/USP) em Piracicaba-SP, o delineamento experimental adotado foi de 4 blocos; os tratamentos foram arranjados em esquema fatorial N x Si (4 x 3 + 2), sendo quatro doses de N, 25N, 50N, 100N e 150N (15, 30, 60 e 90 kg ha-1 respetivamente), três doses Si, 50Si, 100Si e 150Si (175, 350 e 525 kg ha-1 respetivamante). O N foi aplicado em forma de nitrato de amônio, entretanto o Si foi usado AgrosilícioPlus®. As irrigações foram realizadas por gotejamento, sendo adotado o manejo via solo através do uso de tensiômetros instalados a três profundidades no solo. Os resultados encontrados indicaram que o Si teve efeito sob a clorofila, sendo o melhor tratamento 60 kg de N ha-1 175 kg de Si ha-1. Os tratamentos de N e Si não apresentaram efeitos significativos sob as variáveis da qualidade tecnológica da cana-de-açúcar. Os indicadores de produtividade da água foram influenciados pelas baixas doses de N; o Si apresentou efeito em todas as dosagens, assim os maiores valores médios foram observados no tratamento 30 kg de N ha-1 350 kg de Si ha-1 para a produtividade da água em açúcar, já para a produtividade da água em biomassa e energia foi o tratamento 15 kg de N ha-1 350 kg de Si ha-1. / Sugarcane is not only important for sugar production, but also because it is an alternative source of bioenergy. Brazil has the largest cultivated area of sugarcane in the world, but the expansion area is being carried out in marginal regions, representing the water deficit one of the main problems in these new areas. The potential role of silicon (Si) in providing tolerance against environmental stresses suggests that Si content in plants may be a viable approach to increasing plant resistance to various factors. Some experiments conducted in Brazil have shown the effect of Si in the production of sugarcane. In addition, several studies report the interaction between nitrogen (N) and Si, although for sugar cane this relationship is still not clear, on the one hand there are studies that observed that the interaction did not affect the nutritional status of the crop; On the other hand, several surveys report that the interaction promotes improvements in the growth of sugarcane. Thus, with the hypothesis that there must be a dose of N and Si that provides the highest productivity of water, the objective of this research was to evaluate the effect of N and Si on water productivity, biomass and energy, for sugarcane sugar analysis, analyzing the variables related to biometrics, quality, and water productivity. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse at the \"Luiz de Queiroz\" College of Agriculture (ESALQ / USP) Piracicaba, SP, Brazil. Treatments were arranged in factorial scheme (4 x 3 + 2), four doses of N, 25N, 50N, 100N and 150N (15, 30, 60 and 90 kg ha-1 respectively), three doses Si, 50 Si, 100 Si and 150 Si (175, 350 and 525 kg ha-1 respectively). The N was applied in the form of ammonium nitrate, and for Si was used AgrosilicioPlus®. Irrigations were performed by drip irrigation, and water management was adopted through the use of tensiometers installed at three soil depths. The results indicated that the leaf area responds to Si, therefore, the highest values are in the 60 kg of N ha-1 175 kg of Si ha-1 dossages. N and Si treatments did not show significant effects under the technological quality variables of sugarcane. The water productivity indicators were influenced by the low doses of N; o Si presented an effect at all dosages, so the highest mean values were observed in the treatment 30 kg of N ha-1 350 kg of Si ha-1 for sugar water productivity, as well as for water productivity in biomass and energy was the treatment 15 kg of N ha-1 350 kg of Si ha-1.

Nos últimos anos, as questões relacionadas à problemática ambiental multiplicaram sua presença na agenda do setor empresarial. Mais recentemente, observa-se o aumento do interesse das empresas pela água, recurso natural indispensável para a manutenção do equilíbrio dos ecossistemas e das atividades socioeconômicas humanas. Diante da ampliação da pressão sobre seu uso, resultado do crescimento populacional e incremento dos padrões atuais de produção e consumo, diferentes ferramentas têm sido desenvolvidas para contribuir para que o uso da água se torne mais racional e sustentável. Uma delas é a Pegada Hídrica (PH), um indicador de consumo direto e indireto da água utilizada durante a produção de bens ou serviços. A PH está relacionada com a pressão causada aos recursos hídricos pelas atividades humanas e classifica a água usada nesses processos e atividades de acordo com sua origem e impacto. Sua utilização pelo setor empresarial tem sido cada vez mais frequente. Tendo como base este contexto, este trabalho busca compreender quais são os principais motivos que tem levado as empresas a utilizarem a PH. Esta Tese, de caráter interdisciplinar, utiliza como referenciais teóricos a Teoria da Modernização Ecológica (TME), a Teoria dos Stakeholders (TS) e elementos da Nova Sociologia Econômica (NSE). Para alcançar o objetivo proposto, foram utilizados três procedimentos metodológicos: a) levantamento documental; b) revisão bibliográfica sistemática; c) estudos de caso. Os motivos que justificam a utilização da PH extraídos dos documentos analisados na revisão bibliográfica sistemática foram sistematizados e agrupados em quatro categorias que podem ser relacionadas com os referenciais teóricos utilizados. Os resultados obtidos na pesquisa indicaram que os motivos que têm levado as empresas a utilizarem a Pegada Hídrica são: 1) vantagens do método, já que permite uma visão detalhada do consumo de água em toda a cadeia produtiva (TME); 2) comunicação com stakeholders, pois reconhecem que é necessário avaliar o consumo da água em toda a sua cadeia, para atender as demandas dos diferentes stakeholders internos e externos e melhorar sua comunicação com eles (TS; NSE); 3) porque a PH pode colaborar na identificação de riscos associados à água, o que permite agir com certa antecipação a futuras regulações e contestações dos diferentes stakeholders (NSE); 4) porque os resultados dos estudos de PH podem fornecer informações que colabore na tomada de decisão para reduzir o consumo de água, estabelecer parcerias e cooperação entre os diferentes setores da sociedade (TME). Entre os motivos apontados, os mais frequentes são aqueles relacionados com as vantagens do método, o que permite uma compreensão mais ampla da pressão e impactos à água causados pelas atividades das empresas. Entretanto, considerando que sua utilização pelo setor empresarial é muito recente, pesquisas futuras necessitam ser realizadas para acompanhar a evolução das ações e do comportamento das empresas sobre a temática da água. Nesse sentido, torna-se cada vez mais urgente uma reflexão sobre a necessidade de que os limites físicos existentes e a capacidade de suporte dos ecossistemas orientem a organização das sociedades. / In recent years, several environmental issues have multiplied their presence in the corporate sectors agenda. More recently, an increased interest is observed among companies on the topic of water, an essential natural resource for the maintenance of ecosystems equilibrium and human socio-economic activities. To face the increasing pressure over the resource, resulting from the combination of population growth and changing consumption patterns, several tools have been developed. Their goal is to make corporate water consumption more rational and sustainable. One of these tools is the Water Footprint (WF), an indicator of direct and indirect water consumption in the production of goods and services. The water footprint quantifies and assesses the pressure from human activities on water resources. It classifies water resources according to their source and potential impact. Its use by the private sector is increasingly frequent. Against this context, this work aims at understanding the main reasons for companies adoption of the WF Assessment. This thesis, embracing a multidisciplinary approach, makes use of three theoretical frameworks: the Ecological Modernization Theory (EMT), Stakeholder theory (ST) and elements of the New Economic Sociology (NES). To this end, three different methodologies where used: a) document research; b) systematic literature research; c) case studies. The stated reasons for using the WF found in the literature research where classified into four categories that may be related to the theoretical frameworks presented. The results from this research identified as the main reasons under private sectors adoption of the WF. The first reason could be called advantages of this methodology, since it allows for a detailed analysis of water consumption in the supply chain, which can be analyzed using the EMT. A second reason would be related to the communication with the stakeholders. Companies recognize the need for addressing water consumption over their whole supply chain in order to meet the demands of different stakeholders and improve their communications with them. This recognition is explained by the ST and NES. Thirdly, risk assessment was is another important argument. WF assessment may help to address water-related risks, allowing them to anticipate the introduction of new regulations or contestation from different stakeholders. NES allows us to understand this reason. Lastly, companies include informed decision-making as another adoption reason. WF may be used for establishing goals and priorities for lower water consumption rates, identifying key partners and working together with key sectors of society. Ecological modernization theory contributes to explain this effect. The most frequent reasons mentioned were those related to the advantages of the methodology, arguing that the WF provides a broader understanding of pressure resulting from corporate activities. Nevertheless, considering the recent adoption by the private sector of this method, it would be important to re-evaluate the relation between water and the private sector, and with the WF in particular. In this sense, it is increasingly necessary that environmental limits and ecosystems carrying capacity guide societal organization.

Water supply managers often look for easily applied metrics to determine where water use can be curtailed. Unfortunately, the one-size-fits-all mentality comes with a price of failing to fully grasp the consequences decision-making based on such metrics. One issue that water supply regulator like to use is per capita water use. Per capital water use is often used to show where there is “wasted” water use, such as excessive irrigation. However such a metric may not be truly applicable depending on other economic factors. A heavily industrial area may add to apparent per capital use, but actually is an economic development activity. The focus of this project is to look at various water utilities and their per capital usage with the intent of discerning whether or not a better metric could be developed that consider the economic development activities of the region and water use. / Includes bibliography. / Thesis (M.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2015. / FAU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Collection

Thesis (M.C.P.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Urban Studies and Planning, 1980. / MICROFICHE COPY AVAILABLE IN ARCHIVES AND ROTCH. / Bibliography: leaves 68-73. / by Maryann McCall-Taylor. / M.C.P.

A produção das culturas e, particularmente neste estudo, a de citros, associada às condições climáticas e edáficas, é função da presença de água e nutrientes no solo em época e quantidades apropriadas. Sua falta ou excesso é fator limitante à produção, determinando em muitos casos a sua diminuição. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi a avaliação do consumo de água de pomares de citros em Latossolo Vermelho-Amarelo Distrófico argissólico, pela determinação do balanço hídrico no solo, na busca de explicar cientificamente o comportamento hídrico dessa cultura neste solo ao longo do ano agrícola e a influência do consumo de água sobre a produtividade da cultura. O balanço hídrico foi conduzido em duas transeções com 20 plantas e 100 m de comprimento (7 x 4 m), localizadas no campo experimental de citros, Departamento de Produção Vegetal, Esalq/USP, município de Piracicaba (SP). A condutividade hidráulica para a profundidade controle (1,10 m) foi determinada pelo método do perfil instantâneo conduzido em área adjacente. O armazenamento foi determinado com o uso de sonda de nêutrons. A drenagem interna e/ou ascensão capilar foi medida pela leitura diária de três tensiômetros instalados na projeção da copa (2 m do tronco) das 40 plantas em três profundidades: 1,00 m, 1,10 m e 1,20 m. A precipitação pluvial foi medida por pluviôgrafo instalado na área e foi considerada normal para o período do ano monitorado (agosto-agosto). A extração de água por uma planta do pomar também foi medida pela instalação de tensiômetros nas profundidades 0.2 m, 0.4 m, 0.6 m, 0.8 m e 1.0 m e a 0.4 m, 0.8 m, 1.2 m, 1,6 m e 2.0 m do tronco em direção à linha e em direção à entrelinha. A evapotranspiração da cultura (ETc) média desta comunidade de plantas foi de 1271 mm, sendo a variação da ETc diária entre 0,4 e 8,3 mm dia -1 e a razão ETc/ECA variando entre 0,3 e 1,5 para os meses de menor e maior necessidade hídrica. A camada de 0,40 à 0,60 m de profundidade mostrou ser que a cultura de citros apresenta maior volume de raízes. Em futuros projetos de irrigação por gotejadores (irrigação localizada) para a cultura de citros, a distância de 0,40 m do tronco deve ser a adotada para a obtenção da melhor eficiência. / The agricultural yield and, particularly in this study, the citrus yield, associated to weather and soil conditions, is dependent on the presence of water and nutrients in the soil in appropriate amounts along the time. Its lack or excess is a limiting factor to the production, determining in many cases its decrease. The objective of the present work was to evaluate the water consumption by citrus orchards in a Latossolo Vermelho Amarelo(Oxisol), by the means of the soil water balance determination aiming at the scientific explanation of the hydric behavior of this crops in this soil, along the agricultural year, and the influence of the water consumption on the crop productivity. The soil water balance was determined in two transects, 100 m length (7 x 4 m) and 20 plants each, located at the experimental fields of the Vegetable Crop Department, Esalq/USP, Piracicaba (SP - Brazil). The hydraulic conductivity for the control depth (1,10 m) was determined by the instantaneous profile method carried out in an adjacent area. The water storage was measured by a neutron probe. The internal drainage and/or capillary rise was measured by the daily reading of three tensiometers installed under each one of the 40 trees (2 m from stem) at three depths: 1.00 m, 1.10 m and 1.20 m. The rainfall was measured by means of a pluviographer installed in the area and it was considered normal for the period of the monitored year (August-August). Water extraction of one plant of the orchard was also assessed installing tensiometers at the depths 0.2 m, 0.4 m, 0.6 m, 0.8 and 1.0 and 0.4 m, 0.8 m, 1.2 m, 1.6 m and 2,0 from the stem along and perpendicular to the plants line. The annual evapotranspiration of the crop (Etc) was 1271 mm and the daily one varied from 0.4 to 8.3 mm dia -1 . The ETc/ECA ratio varied from 0.3 to 1.5 for the months with lowest and highest water need. The soil layer in which the citrus presented the highest volume of roots was 0,40 – 0,60 m. In future drip irrigation projects (trickle irrigation) for the citrus, the distance of 0.40 m from stem should be adopted to obtain the highest irrigation efficiency.