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Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Biological & Agricultural Engineering / Stacy L. Hutchinson and Kyle R. Douglas-Mankin / Ecohydrology, a sub-discipline of hydrology, deals with the ecological impacts of and interactions with the hydrological cycle. Changes in hydrology of the Great Plains rivers, and their impacts on water quality, water resources, aquatic ecosystems, and fish species distributions have been documented. The major goal of this study was to develop and test methods to analyze watershed-level ecohydrological characteristics. The specific objectives were (a) to detect past temporal trends and spatial variability in hydrologic indices, (b) to evaluate the presence and/or extent of spatial and temporal relationships between climatic and ecohydrological variables and riverine historical data on fauna species density and distribution, and (c) to assess model calibration strategies for accurate ecohydrological indicator simulation. The Kansa River Basin (KRB), which has substantial land use, soil and climate variability, as well as variation in anthropogenic drivers (dams, diversions, reservoirs, etc.), was the focus of this study. Thirty eight hydrological indicators were generated using the indicators of hydrologic alterations software for 34 stations in the KRB using 50-year streamflow records and trend analysis using Mann-Kendall, Seasonal Kendall, and Sen’s slope estimator tests. Across the KRB a decreasing trend was evident for annual mean runoff, summer and autumn mean runoff, 30-day, 90-day minimum flows, and 1-day, 3-day, 7-day, 30-day and 90-day maximum flows. Most of the significant negative trends were observed in the High Plains ecoregion. Two hydrologic indicators, high-flow pulse count and mean summer streamflow, were significantly different in streams that lost two indicator fish species, indicating that changes in streamflow have altered the fish habitat of this region. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) biophysical model calibrated using a multi-objective framework (multi-site, multivariable and multi-criteria) was able to simulate most of the ecohydrological indicators at different hydrological conditions and scales. The SWAT model provided robust performance in simulating high-flow-rate ecohydrologic indicators. However ecohydrologic indicators performance was highly dependent on the level of calibration and parameterization. The effect of calibration and parameterization on ecohydrologic indicators performance varied between watersheds and among subwatersheds.

Master of Science / Department of Civil Engineering / Natalie Mladenov / The Colorado Front Range of the Rocky Mountains contains undeveloped, barren soils, yet in this environment there is strong evidence for a microbial role in increased nitrogen (N) export. Barren soils in alpine environments are severely carbon-limited, and organic carbon (OC) is the main energy source for heterotrophic microbial activity and sustenance of life. Atmospheric deposition can contain high amounts of OC. Atmospheric pollutants, dust events, and biological aerosols, such as bacteria, may be important contributors to the atmospheric OC load. In this stage of the research we evaluated seasonal trends and annual loadings in the chemical composition and optical spectroscopic (fluorescence and UV-vis absorbance) signatures of wet deposition and dry deposition in an alpine environment, at Niwot Ridge in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado to better understand the sources and chemical characteristics of atmospheric deposition. Dry deposition was found to be an important source of OC to the alpine. Wet deposition contributed substantially greater amounts of dissolved ammonium, nitrate, and sulfate. There were also positive relationships between dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations and ammonium, nitrate and sulfate concentrations in wet deposition, which may be derived from such sources as dust and urban air pollution. We also observed the presence of seasonally-variable fluorescent components in atmospheric samples that are different from aquatic dissolved organic matter (DOM). Finally, the quality of atmospheric organic compounds reflects photodegradation during transport through the atmosphere. These results are relevant because atmospheric inputs of carbon and other nutrients may influence nitrification in barren, alpine soils and, ultimately, the export of nitrate from alpine watersheds.

This paper describes the processes, methods, backgrounds, and economic challenges, of Desalination and Water Recycling and provide current examples of both. To create a baseline with which to compare the two methods, I will also delve into the history of California water policy. This complicated past is the reason water importation into Southern California remains the main method of obtaining water. Yet, as the current drought continues and technology advances, the need for imported water will become obsolete as the methods for recycling and desalinating water become less expensive, more convenient and more equitable. In the conclusion, all the methods will be compared and I will give suggestions on potential solutions for solving San Diego’s water dependence.

This thesis will address the impact of political and economic forces on the equitable access to fresh water in Ecuador. Demographic factors such as the rural-to-urban migration and the political and economic forces have strongly influenced the debate over the privatization of the provision of potable water and sanitation services. Within the context of Ecuador, two different approaches by the largest cities, Quito and Guayaquil, are analyzed; in Guayaquil, the services were privatized, while in Quito, the public utility was corporatized, remaining under public control. It concludes arguing that in the face of political instability and a lack of regulatory enforcement, neither public nor private provision adequately supplies marginalized communities with water and sanitation services. Watershed management is therefore crucial to maintaining a sound city water-management plan. Its flexibility and openness to innovative alliances between various stakeholders creates great potential for this approach.

Water reservoirs are used to regulate river discharge for a variety of reasons, such as flood mitigation, water availability for irrigation, municipal consumption and power production purposes. Recent efforts to increase the amount of renewable power production have seen an increase in intermittent climate-variable power production due to wind and solar power production. The additional variable energy production has increased the need for regulating the capacity of the electrical system, to which hydropower production is a significant contributor. The hydraulic impact on the time lags of flows between production stations have often largely been ignored in optimization planning models in favor of computational efficiency and simplicity. In this thesis, the hydrodynamics in the stream network connecting managed reservoirs were described using the kinematic-diffusive wave (KD) equation, which was implemented in optimization schemes to illustrate the effects of wave diffusion in flow stretches on the resulting production schedule. The effect of wave diffusion within a watershed on the variance of the discharge hydrograph within a river network was also analyzed using a spectral approach, illustrating that wave diffusion increases the variance of the hydrograph while the regulation of reservoirs generally increases the variance of the hydrograph over primarily short periods. Although stream hydrodynamics can increase the potential regulation capacity, the total capacity for power regulation in the Swedish reservoir system also depends significantly on the variability in climatic variables. Alternative formulations of the environmental objectives, which are often imposed as hard constraints on discharge, were further examined. The trade-off between the objectives of hydropower production and improvement of water quality in downstream areas was examined to potentially improve the ecological and aquatic environments and the regulation capacity of the network of reservoirs. / <p>QC 20170210</p>

This research was part of a project underway at Barren River and Nolin River Reservoirs in south-central Kentucky. The research was partially supported by a grant through the Sport Fishing Institute, Washington, D.C. The study reported herein was concerned with the analysis of trace metal concentrations in the two reservoirs. It is believed that the fish population may in part depend upon the trace metals present in the water. It is anticipated that the data presented in this paper will eventually be correlated with the biology studies of the reservoirs being carried out by the Department of Biology of Western Kentucky University.

Quarterly samples were used to estimate assemblage-level (all species combined) fish production within three minimally-impacted, southern West Virginia streams. The total annual fish production estimate was highest in Slaunch Fork (37.52 kg∙ha-1∙y-1), a tributary of the Tug Fork River, and lowest in Cabin Creek (10.59 kg∙ha-1∙y-1), a Guyandotte River tributary. Creek Chub Semotilus atromaculatus, Mottled Sculpin Cottus bairdii and Blacknose Dace Rhinicthys atratulus were the most abundant species among sites, accounting for >90% of all sampled individuals. Reference condition criteria were also selected and metrics calculated for each of the three stream sites using a variety of established metrics. According to established criteria, all three of our sites scored high enough to be listed as “reference” sites. Third, a comprehensive GIS analysis was conducted in order to determine land use patterns and predict where similar assemblages would be present using various climatological and physical characteristics of our stream sites. These analyses revealed rapid expansion of surface mining activities putting many stream systems at risk.

Depuis quelques années le recours à l’enneigement artificiel est de plus en plus courant dans les stations de ski des Alpes mais également dans les autres massifs français et étrangers. Cependant la production de neige nécessite l’utilisation d’un volume d’eau important, souvent pompé dans les réserves d’eau potable, les rivières, les nappes phréatiques, ou bien dans les réserves collinaires, elles-mêmes alimentées par captage des eaux de ruissellement. Or l’enneigement n’est pas le seul usage de l’eau dans les stations de sports d’hiver, et ce nouveau besoin concerne la saison hivernale lors des étiages des cours d’eau et des besoins pour les diverses activités. Depuis quelques années, cette technique fait l’objet de nombreuses controverses au sein de la communauté scientifique, politique et des populations locales, car les volumes d’eau pompés sont particulièrement importants. Notre recherche s’appuie sur des enquêtes auprès des acteurs impliqués, des observations de terrain et des mesures, à différentes échelles de travail. Deux modèles de production de neige sont confrontés : Avoriaz (France) et Champéry (Suisse). Les impacts des usages sur le fonctionnement hydrologique du bassin versant de la Dranse de Sous-Saix, sur le domaine d’Avoriaz, sont aujourd’hui limités et dans les deux stations la ressource est actuellement suffisante pour satisfaire tous les besoins. A ce jour les situations de pénuries d’eau et de conflits autour de la ressource sont rares, et sont dues à des problèmes de gestion. Un ensemble de propositions inspirées d’initiatives locales pour une meilleure gestion de la production de neige et des usages de l’eau a été proposé. / For some years now the use of artificial snow has become increasingly frequent in Alpine skiing resorts as well as in the other French and foreign massifs. Nevertheless, snowmaking calls for a large amount of water, which is often pumped from drinking water reserves, rivers, groundwater tables or else from hill water reserves, themselves supplied from surface water capture. This relatively recent practice, added to the different activities already present, is of concern for the local populations and environmental associations. For several years now, this technique has been the subject of numerous controversies within the scientific and political community and local populations. As things stand, the work performed by researchers and, more particularly, geographers is thin on the ground, because the volumes of water pumped are particularly important. Our research is based on interviews whit those involved in snow production, field observation and measures. Two model of artificial snow are confronted : Avoriaz (France) and Champéry (Switzerland). The impacts of the uses on the hydrological functioning of the Dranse de Sous Saix catchment area, in Avoriaz’s area are now limited and in both resorts, the resource is currently sufficient to satisfy all the needs. At the present time water shortages or conflicts involving the resource are unusual, and are thus due to management problems. A set of proposals inspired local initiatives for a better artificial snow management and water uses management have been proposed.

Syfte: Fokus på dagvattenhantering är viktigt eftersom översvämnings- och föroreningsrisker blir allt mer förekommande på grund av klimatförändringar och urbanisering med en ökad andel hårdgjorda ytor. Vid exploatering vill kommuner utnyttja befintliga diken istället för att bygga nya ledningssystem, därmed kan de behöva samverka med markavvattningsföretag. Syftet med studien är att underlätta samarbetet mellan markavvattningsföretag och kommuner för att undvika översvämningar och föroreningar som förändring av stad och klimat kan medföra. Målet är att identifiera faktorer som kan förbättra samverkan mellan markavvattnings-företag och kommuner. Metod: Studien utgår ifrån en fallstudie som består av kommuner som har samverkat med markavvattningsföretag. De datainsamlingsmetoder som använts för att besvara frågeställningarna är litteraturstudier och semistrukturerade intervjuer med kommuner som har erfarenhet av sådana samverkansprocesser; Linköping och Norrköping. Resultat: De faktorer som kan förbättra samverkan är framförallt kommunikationen mellan parterna för att finna ömsesidiga nyttor och att uppdatera registren över markavvattningsföretag. Fallstudien har visat att förbättring av samverkan kan uppnås genom rådgivningsstöd från en transparent aktör. Norrköpings kommun önskar bland annat en enkel handbok som är framtagen av någon myndighet för att få det transparent och som är anpassad för aktörer med mindre kännedom kring processen. Fallstudien har även påvisat att markavvattningsföretag är en intressent som har hög angelägenhet att påverka projekt samtidigt som de har makt att styra projektets tidsaspekt. Dessa är projektets nyckelintressenter som är viktiga aktörer för projektets helhet och som måste prioriteras, hållas informerade och nöjda för att underlätta samverkan. För att upprätthålla en hållbar stadsutveckling behöver översvämnings- och föroreningsrisker minskas för att skydda naturresurser och bevara den biologiska mångfalden. Öppna diken mildrar belastningen på avloppssystemen som i sin tur minskar risker för översvämningar och främjar biologisk mångfald. Konsekvenser: Kännedom om betydelse av användandet av öppna diken är nödvändigt för att upprätthålla hållbar stadsutveckling. Det saknas uppgifter i registren över markavvattningsföretag eftersom de inte är uppdaterade. Det kan därmed bli ett detektivarbete för kommuner att komma fram till rätt person. Denna problematik medför även att en del markavvattningsföretag saknar kännedom om dess roll i projekten. Det finns dessutom ingen myndighet att rådfråga i dessa samverkansprojekt. Begränsningar: Det var endast kommuner med erfarenheter av dessa projekt som inkluderades i undersökningen eftersom frågeställningarna krävde viss kännedom om markavvattningsföretag. Det var även lämpligt att endast ta hänsyn till faktorer som berör samverkansprocessen, utan att studera övriga påverkande aspekter såsom jordens permeabilitet eller växters vattenupptag eftersom detta inte påverkar studiens utfall. / Purpose: Focus on stormwater management is important because water pollution and flood risks are increasingly anticipated effects of climate change and urbanization. In case of urban growth areas, municipalities want to exploit the existing ditches rather than install new pipes. Here cooperation with agricultural drainage organizations may be required. This study contains exposition of key factors to facilitate such cooperation’s to support sustainable urban development. The purpose of this study is to facilitate the cooperation between agricultural drainage organizations and municipalities in order to avoid flooding and pollution which urbanization and climate change can result in. The objective is to identify factors that can help improve cooperation between agricultural drainage organizations and municipalities. Method: The study was carried out as a case study of municipal cooperation with agricultural drainage organizations. Data was collected from literature studies and semi-structured interviews with municipalities with previous such experiences; Linköping and Norrköping. Findings: The factors that can improve cooperation are foremost communication between both parties in order to find mutual benefits and to keep the registers over agricultural drainage organizations updated. This case study has shown that improvement of collaboration can be achieved through counseling support from a transparent actor. Norrköping Municipality wishes for a simple handbook accessible even to actors with little to no prior knowledge about the process. The case study has also shown that agricultural drainage organizations are stakeholders who have a high interest in influencing projects while also having the power to control the project's time aspect. These are the key stakeholders of the project, who are important players for the project as a whole and who must be prioritized, kept informed and satisfied to facilitate collaboration. To maintain sustainable urban development the risks of flooding and water pollution need to be minimized to protect biodiversity. Open ditches mitigate the load on drainage systems which reduces the risk of flooding and support biodiversity. Implications: Knowledge of the importance in using open ditches is necessary to maintain sustainable urban development. There is data missing in the registers over agricultural drainage organizations since they are not updated. This results in difficulties for municipalities when trying to reach the correct person. This problem also results in some agricultural drainage organizations missing knowledge of their part in projects. There is also no authority to consult in these cooperative projects. Limitations: The study does not consider other aspects beside the cooperation between municipalities and agricultural drainage organizations. Only municipalities with prior experience of working with agricultural drainage organizations were questioned as the questions required certain knowledge about these processes. It was also appropriate to only consider factors that affect the cooperative process without studying other affecting aspects like the permeability or water uptake of plants since this does not affect the results of the study.