Integrated Algae Pond Systems (IAPS) are a derivation of the Oswald designed Algal Integrated Wastewater Pond Systems (AIWPS®) and combine the use of anaerobic and aerobic bioprocesses to effect wastewater treatment. IAPS technology was introduced to South Africa in 1996 and a pilot plant designed and commissioned at the Belmont Valley WWTW in Grahamstown. The system has been in continual use since implementation and affords a secondarily treated water for reclamation according to its design specifications which most closely resemble those of the AIWPS® Advanced Secondary Process developed by Oswald. As a consequence, and as might be expected, while the technology performed well and delivered a final effluent superior to most pond systems deployed in South Africa it was unable to meet The Department of Water Affairs General Standard for nutrient removal and effluent discharge. The work described in this thesis involved the design, construction, and evaluation of several tertiary treatment units (TTU') for incorporation into the IAPS process design. Included were; Maturation Ponds (MP), Slow Sand Filter (SSF) and Rock Filters (RF). Three MP's were constructed in series with a 12 day retention time and operated in parallel with a two-layered SSF and a three-stage RF. Water quality of the effluent emerging from each of these TTU's was monitored over a 10 month period. Significant decreases in the chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonium-N, phosphate-P, nitrate-N, faecal coliforms (FC) and total coliforms (TC) were achieved by these TTU's. On average, throughout the testing period, water quality was within the statutory limit for discharge to a water course that is not a listed water course, with the exception of the total suspended solids (TSS). The RF was determined as the most suitable TTU for commercial use due to production of a better quality water, smaller footprint, lower construction costs and less maintenance required. From the results of this investigation it is concluded that commercial deployment of IAPS for the treatment of municipal sewage requires the inclusion of a suitable TTU. Furthermore, and based on the findings presented, RF appears most appropriate to ensure that quality of the final effluent meets the standard for discharge.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Microbiology)) -- University of Limpopo, 2016 / Access to safe drinking water is a major problem globally and it mostly affects people living in low-income countries. The lack of potable water leads to the use of raw water from surface or ground water sources for drinking and other household purposes. A water filtration unit was designed and constructed using fabric, gravel and sand, which were wet-packaged into a 20 L bucket. The efficiency of the filter unit to improve the bio-physicochemical properties of contaminated water was tested using surface waters from rivers in the Sekhukhune area. Physico-chemical parameters tested included turbidity, colour, total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness and pH. Turbidity and colour were the most improved characteristics, where turbidity improved by 69% and colour by 80%. Other parameters such as total hardness, TSS and TDS were non-significantly reduced following treatment with the filtration unit. The amount of soluble solids in raw water was well within allowable limits by WHO standards. Microbiological tests included heterotrophic bacteria, total coliform and faecal coliform counts. The bacterial load was too numerous to count for the untreated water, however, after treatment with the filtration unit, heterotrophic bacterial load decreased to 15 x 10103 CFU/ml, total coliforms to 14 x 10 2 CFU/100ml and faecal coliforms to 11 x 10 2 CFU/100ml. Further treatment with UV sterilization unit resulted in undetectable amount of bacteria. The unit designed in this study can be beneficial in those rural communities were clean water is not available, it is easy to construct and simple to operate and most importantly it reduced contaminants in surface water. The UV unit incorporated in this study is not cost effective, therefore, other household treatment options such as chlorination and boiling which are easily accessible to most communities can be used to further eliminate remaining microorganisms after filtration. The effective shortest boiling time and minimum dosage of Na(OCl2) have been previously tested in our laboratory and total elimination of bacteria was achieved within 2 minutes of rolling boil and after 30 minutes following addition of 5ml/20L of liquid chlorine.

Thesis (M. Tech.(Chemistry)--Vaal University of Technology)), 2010 / Mining industry produces metals which are economical and serve as high valuable commodities in South Africa. This country is regarded as the world leading producer of precious metals such as platinum group metals (PGMs). Silver (Ag), which is also a precious metal, contribute to the country’s economy wealth due to its significance during industrial applications. Base metals such as copper (Cu) and nickel (Ni), though they are low valued, play a significant role in the republics economic wealth. Mining wastewater contains some of these metals, which end up polluting the environment. A possibility to recover this was investigated using NF membranes. Mine effluent was simulated by using relevant reagents. Characterization of NF90, NF- and NF270 membranes, was done by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), clean water permeability, single charged salts of NaCl and MgCl2 and binary mixture of NaCl/MgCl2 studies. All the rejection experiments were conducted at pH 2.0 with varying pressure and concentrations. Flux measurements indicated that water permeability through the membranes trend, NF270 > NF90 > NF-. The experiments were performed at pressures of 5 bar, 10 bar, 15 bar and 20 bar. For NF90 membrane, a rejection of Na+ monovalent ion in 20 ppm solution was less than of Mg2+ (divalent) ion. Percentage rejections of 90% (Na+) and 98% (Mg2+) were achieved. NF- had rejection of 83% and 90% for Na+ and Mg2+, respectively. In the case of NF270, the membrane had rejection of 92% (Na+) and 94% (Mg2+), respectively. At 100 ppm, all three membranes showed a decreasing trend in rejection while increasing pressure. For binary-solution mixture, Mg2+ ion still had the highest rejection compared to Na+ ion with about 94% and 85% on NF90 than on NF270 and NF-. The high rejection of divalent ion as compared to monovalent ion for charged solutes was due to solute size and electrostatic interaction between the membrane surface layer and the solute. In the case of transition metal rejection studies, Pd2+ ion had an average of 90%, with Ni2+ ion ≈ 95% and Cu2+ ion ≈ 98% as single salts on NF90 compared to NF270 and NF-. However, as for binary and trinary solution mixture, the competition amongst ions was high, where Pd2+ ion rejection was ≈ 99,0%, while Ni2+ and Cu2+ ions was > 90% on NF90 and NF-. Therefore it was excluded from the tests. For the monovalent metal ions (Ag+ and Cu+), the rejection was > 90% in almost all concentrations mixtures. During membrane fouling evaluation, AgCl salt fouled the most, compared to other metal ions, forming a concentration polarization accumulation on the membrane surface for both 20 and 100 ppm solutions. This situation leads to cake layer formation which causes a flux decline, reduces membrane life time and lowers the rejection performance of NF membranes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance of three commercial polymeric membranes (NF90, NF270 and NF-) during rejection of the metal

CNPq / Florações de cianobactérias em reservatórios de abastecimento de água têm ocorrido com uma frequência cada vez maior, causando diversos problemas de ordem operacional nos sistemas de tratamento de água em decorrência da elevada densidade de células, além de preocupações quanto à eficiência do tratamento na remoção de metabólitos como cianotoxinas e compostos odoríferos. Este trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar a aplicabilidade da Moringa oleifera Lam pura e associada ao policloreto de alumínio (PACl) na remoção de células de Microcystis aeruginosa, microcistinas, 2-MIB e geosmina por meio de flotação por ar dissolvido e filtração rápida, utilizando carvão ativado granular. Primeiramente, os sais NaCl e CaCl2 foram avaliados para a extração do coagulante de M. oleifera. As amostras consistiram em água sintética adicionada de ácido húmico e células de M. aeruginosa para valores iniciais de 25 uT. O coagulante obtido com 1M CaCl2 de M. oleifera apresentou maior eficiência de remoção de cor, turbidez e número de células, sendo, para ele, indicada como ideal a dose de 50 mg L-1. É indicado que o CaCl2 não permite uma maior eficiência de extração do coagulante, mas sim que participe na formação dos flocos. A partir desses resultados, considerou-se a substituição de 10 a 50% do coagulante salino por PACl. O conjunto de coagulantes em proporções de 70:30 e 60:40 de M. oleifera e PACl permitiram uma melhoria na eficiência de remoção de células e redução do carbono orgânico residual. Finalmente, para essas proporções, foi avaliada a contribuição do uso de carvão ativado granular (CAG) como camada intermediária de filtro de areia visando à remoção de microcistinas, 2-MIB e geosmina. As amostras foram adicionadas de 50 ng L-1 de 2-MIB e geosmina, e 25 μg L-1 de microcistina-LR equivalente, antes dos ensaios. O uso do filtro com camada intermediária de CAG para o conjunto de coagulantes na proporção 70:30 (M.oleifera:PACl) resultou em eficiências globais acima de 95% para a remoção de cor, turbidez, células de M. aeruginosa, microcistinas e geosmina, e de 51 a 75% de remoção de 2-MIB e carbono orgânico dissolvido. Deste modo, o uso de M. oleifera como clarificante de águas com a substituição de 30% por PACl pode reduzir gastos com reagentes por parte de alguns países que hoje importam seu material para clarificação da água, e a adição de CAG no filtro de areia poderia reduzir custos e espaço com a instalação de mais de uma etapa para a remoção de metabólitos. Assim, este conjunto é indicado como uma alternativa de tratamento convencional de água, devido à sua capacidade de remoção de células e metabólitos, além da manutenção de cor, turbidez e microcistinas abaixo dos níveis estipulados para água de consumo. / Nutrient inputs leads to more frequent algal blooms in water supply reservoir which causes operational problems in water treatment plants due to high density of cells, aside from complications induced by its capacity of production of cyanotoxins and taste and odour compounds. The present study had as purpose an evaluation of the applicability of Moringa oleifera Lam as a coagulant with and without polyaluminium chloride (PACl) in the removal of Microcystis aeruginosa cells, microcystins, 2-MIB and geosmin using dissolved air flotation and filtration, using granulated activated carbon (GAC). First, NaCl and CaCl2 salts were studied for extraction of the coagulant. Samples were obtained by the addition of humic acid and M. aeruginosa cells in synthetic water in order to obtain 25 NTU. Coagulant obtained with 1M CaCl2 showed a better performance for color, turbidity and cells removal, being indicated 50 mg L-1 dosage. CaCl2 would not extract better the active component of M. oleifera seeds, but participate on flocs formation. Based on this, PACl addition was evaluated and added in the ranges of 10 to 50% substitution of the saline coagulant. 70:30 and 60:40 proportions of M.oleifera:PACl were indicated in order to to remove turbidity, color and cells. Finally, the use of GAC as an intermediate layer in rapid sand filtration bed was evaluated as a function of microcystins, 2-mib and geosmine retention capacity. Cited proportions were followed by filtration, added of 2-MIB and geosmin 50 ng L-1 as well as 25 μg L-1 of microcystin-LR equivalent before tests. A 70:30 (M.oleifera:PACl) proportion followed by rapid sand filtration combined with GAC led to removal efficiencies above 95% for color, turbidity, M. aeruginosa cells, geosmin and microcystins, and 51 to 75% efficiencies for 2-MIB and dissolved organic carbon. Hence, M. oleifera usage as water coagulant with 30% of PACl can reduce costs for some countries, and the addition of a GAC layer on a sand filter can reduce cost and space in water treatment plants. This process is indicated as an alternative conventional treatment for the removal of cyanobacteria cells and metabolites, besides its capacity to maintain turbidity, color and microcystins below the stipulated levels for water consumption.

CNPq / Florações de cianobactérias em reservatórios de abastecimento de água têm ocorrido com uma frequência cada vez maior, causando diversos problemas de ordem operacional nos sistemas de tratamento de água em decorrência da elevada densidade de células, além de preocupações quanto à eficiência do tratamento na remoção de metabólitos como cianotoxinas e compostos odoríferos. Este trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar a aplicabilidade da Moringa oleifera Lam pura e associada ao policloreto de alumínio (PACl) na remoção de células de Microcystis aeruginosa, microcistinas, 2-MIB e geosmina por meio de flotação por ar dissolvido e filtração rápida, utilizando carvão ativado granular. Primeiramente, os sais NaCl e CaCl2 foram avaliados para a extração do coagulante de M. oleifera. As amostras consistiram em água sintética adicionada de ácido húmico e células de M. aeruginosa para valores iniciais de 25 uT. O coagulante obtido com 1M CaCl2 de M. oleifera apresentou maior eficiência de remoção de cor, turbidez e número de células, sendo, para ele, indicada como ideal a dose de 50 mg L-1. É indicado que o CaCl2 não permite uma maior eficiência de extração do coagulante, mas sim que participe na formação dos flocos. A partir desses resultados, considerou-se a substituição de 10 a 50% do coagulante salino por PACl. O conjunto de coagulantes em proporções de 70:30 e 60:40 de M. oleifera e PACl permitiram uma melhoria na eficiência de remoção de células e redução do carbono orgânico residual. Finalmente, para essas proporções, foi avaliada a contribuição do uso de carvão ativado granular (CAG) como camada intermediária de filtro de areia visando à remoção de microcistinas, 2-MIB e geosmina. As amostras foram adicionadas de 50 ng L-1 de 2-MIB e geosmina, e 25 μg L-1 de microcistina-LR equivalente, antes dos ensaios. O uso do filtro com camada intermediária de CAG para o conjunto de coagulantes na proporção 70:30 (M.oleifera:PACl) resultou em eficiências globais acima de 95% para a remoção de cor, turbidez, células de M. aeruginosa, microcistinas e geosmina, e de 51 a 75% de remoção de 2-MIB e carbono orgânico dissolvido. Deste modo, o uso de M. oleifera como clarificante de águas com a substituição de 30% por PACl pode reduzir gastos com reagentes por parte de alguns países que hoje importam seu material para clarificação da água, e a adição de CAG no filtro de areia poderia reduzir custos e espaço com a instalação de mais de uma etapa para a remoção de metabólitos. Assim, este conjunto é indicado como uma alternativa de tratamento convencional de água, devido à sua capacidade de remoção de células e metabólitos, além da manutenção de cor, turbidez e microcistinas abaixo dos níveis estipulados para água de consumo. / Nutrient inputs leads to more frequent algal blooms in water supply reservoir which causes operational problems in water treatment plants due to high density of cells, aside from complications induced by its capacity of production of cyanotoxins and taste and odour compounds. The present study had as purpose an evaluation of the applicability of Moringa oleifera Lam as a coagulant with and without polyaluminium chloride (PACl) in the removal of Microcystis aeruginosa cells, microcystins, 2-MIB and geosmin using dissolved air flotation and filtration, using granulated activated carbon (GAC). First, NaCl and CaCl2 salts were studied for extraction of the coagulant. Samples were obtained by the addition of humic acid and M. aeruginosa cells in synthetic water in order to obtain 25 NTU. Coagulant obtained with 1M CaCl2 showed a better performance for color, turbidity and cells removal, being indicated 50 mg L-1 dosage. CaCl2 would not extract better the active component of M. oleifera seeds, but participate on flocs formation. Based on this, PACl addition was evaluated and added in the ranges of 10 to 50% substitution of the saline coagulant. 70:30 and 60:40 proportions of M.oleifera:PACl were indicated in order to to remove turbidity, color and cells. Finally, the use of GAC as an intermediate layer in rapid sand filtration bed was evaluated as a function of microcystins, 2-mib and geosmine retention capacity. Cited proportions were followed by filtration, added of 2-MIB and geosmin 50 ng L-1 as well as 25 μg L-1 of microcystin-LR equivalent before tests. A 70:30 (M.oleifera:PACl) proportion followed by rapid sand filtration combined with GAC led to removal efficiencies above 95% for color, turbidity, M. aeruginosa cells, geosmin and microcystins, and 51 to 75% efficiencies for 2-MIB and dissolved organic carbon. Hence, M. oleifera usage as water coagulant with 30% of PACl can reduce costs for some countries, and the addition of a GAC layer on a sand filter can reduce cost and space in water treatment plants. This process is indicated as an alternative conventional treatment for the removal of cyanobacteria cells and metabolites, besides its capacity to maintain turbidity, color and microcystins below the stipulated levels for water consumption.