The purpose of this thesis was to develop a method by which economic value can be imputed from an economic activity to a non-market ecological function or service which contributes to that economic activity. The Knysna River in South Africa was chosen as the ecological function which supported three economic activities from which value was to be imputed; these were the Knysna Municipal Water Supply, Fish Production in the Knysna Estuary and Production of Indigenous Forest within the Knysna Catchment. Three underlying assumptions and two functional operations were required in order to implement the suggested method. The underlying assumptions were: - The ecological and economic activities considered are within a single catchment. - The allocation of value imputed for a specific economic activity to the ecological function or service under consideration (in this case the Knysna River) is proportional to the total contribution of ecological functions or services contributed to the economic activity. - The valuation of the economic activity for the purposes of obtaining a price-quantity point on a demand function is to be full cost pricing with no producer surplus. The two functional requirements were: - Diagram or map the linkages between an economic activity and the supporting ecological functions. - Determine the consumer surplus related to an incremental change in quantity under a demand function where the original price and quantity are known. A value from each of the economic activities was imputed to the Knysna River. However, the method was not tested. Nonetheless applying the equations and collecting the required data allowed several methodological needs to be clearly pointed out. The most acute deficiency was difficulty in obtaining secondary data from governmental agencies, commercial representatives and existing published academic research to ensure a robust price. Also, scientific information was not sufficiently available for allocating ecological contributions to the economic activities. Even with the shortage of credible data the method appears to allow non-market ecological functions to be valued in context of an existing economic system.

The Republic of South Africa embarked on devolution of specific powers to municipal authorities due to the fact that municipalities are a sphere of government which is at the door step of the citizens. Among the powers that were devolved was the authority to regulate on the rendering of water and services to communities. From now henceforth in this study, water and sanitation services will be referred to as water services. The rural villages that had no access to water services during the previous dispensation were rapidly rendered with these services when the transformed Department of Water Affairs and Forestry took a decision to provide the services on its own in order to give space for the transformation of the local sphere of government such that these municipal X authorities are able to manage the load of the allocation of such functions mainly and to close the vacuum so that there is no gap as to who should be responsible for water provision in rural villages whilst the restructuring of municipalities to include the rural villages as part of the transformation process takes place. A decline in the pace rendering water services to the previously disadvantaged rural communities was noticed after the devolution of water services to municipal authorities and by implication once hands were changed. This left those rural communities that had no access to water services still without the desired water services and those that had water services provided left midway with dry water schemes and dysfunctional infrastructure. This study therefore seeks to uproot the cause for the deceleration of water services once it was devolved to municipal authorities. This decline was noticed by the researcher hence the study seeks to attempt providing alternatives and lasting solutions primarily because water services are essential services and water is life. The main objective of the study is to investigate factors that cause the deceleration of water supply and the slow movement in the acceleration of sanitation services in order to provide alternatives that may yield results. Given the above broad objective this study further aims at examining the following factors: The correlation in funding made available by the central government and the financial resources available to municipalities to perform the function in order to render this service properly. Technical support available to municipalities. Relevant legislation, its policies and its impact on the implementation of the service XI. The correlation between accountability, democratization and community participation on standards and quality of the service to actual outputs. Improvement of service delivery and its relationship with transparency and efficiency. Relatedness of poverty to non provision of water services. The relatedness of poverty, lack of basic services to influx in the cities. Relatedness of the quality of the water services to the outbreak of diseases

Thesis (MSc. (Geography and Environmental Science)) -- University of Limpopo, 2015. / Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development and the environment. Growth in population and economic activities have contributed to water scarcity, which is a frequent challenge in rural and township communities in South Africa. This study aimed at investigating onsite greywater reuse as a water conservation method in Lepelle-Nkumpi local municipality, Limpopo province. The study described the socio-economic characteristics, assessed the accessibility and availability of water supply, and ascertained the coping mechanisms for water scarcity as well as the perceptions and reuse of greywater. Four percent respondents each were selected from two settlements, namely, Mashite village and Lebowakgomo township (Zone F). Mashite village had a population size of 5314 people (1231 households) and Lebowakgomo Zone F had 5903 people and (1924 households). A systematic random sampling method was used to select the required households from the two settlements. Both open and close ended questionnaires were used. A Geographical Positioning System was also used to collect the absolute location of available taps in the study area. Data collected were analysed using SPSS version-22 and Arc GIS 10.1. The study found out that the socio-economic characteristics of importance on onsite greywater reuse included highest qualification, household size and employment status, but they varied in these two areas. In Mashite village the majority of the respondents went to secondary school (59%) as compared to Lebowakgomo Zone F where the majority (72%) attained tertiary qualification. Household size mean in Mashite is 6.18 as compared to Lebowakgomo Zone F (2.77). Sixty four percent of respondents in Mashite village were unemployed, whereas in Lebowakgomo 69% were employed. Water usage in the two areas differed; in Mashite village where they use less water (250 to 840 litres) as compared to Lebowakgomo Zone F, where more water is used (5900 to 8001 litres). In Mashite village, 87% of the respondents could not access water due to inaccessibility of taps and unavailability of water as compared to Lebowakgomo zone F (100%). It was also found that the Mashite community sometimes go for a period of two to three months without tap water whereas in Lebowakgomo water was comparatively regular. As a result both communities resorted to rainwater harvesting and greywater reuse. Seventy six percent (76%) of respondents in Mashite village and 30% of the respondents in ii Lebowakgomo Zone F harvested rainwater as a coping mechanism of water scarcity. Perceptions of greywater reuse were higher (76%) in Lebowakgomo Zone F compared to Mashite village (49%). A higher percentage of Mashite village respondents (98%) reuse greywater compared to Lebowakgomo Zone F respondents (59%). Both areas use greywater as water conservation method. These results reinforce the potential of domestic greywater reuse as an alternative for freshwater requirement. Greywater reuse as a water conservation method especially in villages can be used to alleviate the extent of water scarcity. / National Research Foundation (NRF)

Thesis (M. Dev.) -- University of Limpopo, 2017 / The aim of the study was to examine the challenges of water supply management in Umdoni Local Municipality. Two methods were employed to collect data in the study. The first method involved one-on-one interviews with the participants. An interview guide was used to obtain data pertaining water supply services from a water services manager, a municipal manager and ten (10) ward councillors. The second method entailed analysis of documents within the municipality. In this study findings were based on issues such as prioritization of effective water supply for Umdoni Local Municipality, community consultation and participation, addressing capacity constrains in the Municipality such as human resources, water service infrastructure and skills development. The underlying causes of the water supply problems are based on the basic infrastructure, provision of water supply being very poor and dismal across the area. Water serves as a basic need to which everybody has the right to access, however, water supply is unfortunately disrupted by many factors. The findings in this study shows that poor water supply emanates from many factors such as management skills, technical challenges and illegal connections. This study recommends that Umdoni Local Municipality has additions of water plants, building of new reservoirs and upgrades of water pipes, especially in Amahlongwa area as it needs urgent attention.

MRDV / Institute for Rural Development

MESHWR / Department of Hydrology and Water Resources

MESMEG / Department of Mining and Environmental Geology / See the attached abstract below

MSc (Chemistry) / Department of Chemistry / Surface water is used for domestic and agricultural activities in Musina region and other surrounding areas. This is because of the shortage of potable water. As a result, the people living in the region and its surrounding areas are potentially exposed to hazardous contaminants that may be present in the surface water. It is therefore important to ascertain the quality of the surface water in the region. Surface water samples were collected from Mutale, Nwanedi, Tshipise and Nzhelele rivers. The samples were analysed for anions such as fluoride (F-), chloride (Cl-), nitrate (NO3-), phosphate (PO43-), sulphate (SO42-); cations such as aluminium (Al), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na) and trace metals such as lithium (Li), vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), arsenic (As), molybdenum (Mo), cadmium (Cd), thallium (Tl) and lead (Pb) by using analytical techniques such as IC, ICP-OES and ICP-MS. The same samples were also investigated for other parameters such as pH, temperature, EC, TH, TDS, Na % and SAR. The WHO (2008), SANS 241 (2006) and Canadian guideline (2017) were used as a water quality guideline for drinking purposes. Higher concentrations of Li, V, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Al, Ca, Mg, K and Na in river water were detected in rainy season, whereas higher concentrations of As, Mo, K and Fe were recorded in dry season. The concentration of F-, Cd, Tl and Pb showed low contamination level in river samples. The results demonstrated that Tshipise river water was contaminated with high concentration of parameters: TDS (1864.0.8-3372.8 mg L-1), EC (2960.3-5270 mS cm-1), F- (6.403-8.419 mg L-1), SO42- (289.657-326.598 mg L-1), Na (836.690-922.810 mg L-1) and As (10.017-11.267 μg L-1) and relative to the (WHO) water guidelines. Nwanedi river also showed higher values of EC (298.0-699.0) mS cm-1 and TDS (190.3-447.5) mg L-1. In this study, the results indicated that water from Tshipise and Nwanedi river is not suitable for human consumption based on the guidelines of drinking water. The results also indicated that the soil sample had abundance of Ca, Al, Mn and Fe with concentration ranging from 0.13-10595, 0.0084-4.16, 0.0455-1116.5, 2.4-287404 mg Kg-1 respectively. / NRF

PhDENV (Hydrology) / Department of Hydrology and Water Resources / This study developed operating rules for groundwater supply from a probabilistic (risk-based) approach. Groundwater supply systems are often operated without relating groundwater yield/availability to demand which makes groundwater resource planning and management challenging and unpredictable. Risk-based approaches for developing groundwater operating rules comprehensively incorporate assurance of supply and also account for uncertainty due to model inputs, model structure and climate variability. A groundwater resource unit (GRU) was delineated and its hydrogeological conceptual model developed. Automatic curve matching was used to identify appropriate aquifer models and test solutions for estimating hydraulic characteristics (storativity, transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity) based on Aquifer Test Solver (AQTESOLV) Pro version 4.5. Limited groundwater levels and rainfall data were infilled and/or extended using Output Error-Nonlinear Hammerstein Weiner (OE-NLHW) and non-parametric regression (NPR), respectively. Performances of these models were based on relative error (RE), correlation coefficient (COR), root mean square error (RMSE), coefficient of determination (R2) and Nash Sutcliffe coefficient of efficiency (NSE). A program for generation of monthly groundwater levels for the GRU was coded in FORTRAN based on the revised version of the Pitman model (referred to as GW-PITMAN model). The model was calibrated using groundwater levels from a neighbouring borehole due to lack of observed representative data for the GRU. Validation was done by establishing the realistic nature of simulated runoff, recharge and groundwater levels. A Variable Length Block (VLB) bootstrapping model was used for simultaneous generation of stochastic inputs (rainfall, evaporation and groundwater levels) of the groundwater operating rules model. Operating rules were developed from statistical analysis of 100 base yields for the GRU simulated from 5-year long stochastically generated sequences (with length of 34 years) of rainfall, evaporation and groundwater levels. The hydrogeological conceptual model indicated presence of faults and diabase dykes which influence preferential flow paths and storage of water in the aquifer. Identified aquifer test solutions were found to be suitable for estimation of hydraulic characteristics, since they had generally good model fits and low mean residual errors. Heterogeneous aquifer types were identified though leaky aquifer dominated. Storativity, transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity values ranged from 0.0003-0.060, 0.78-12.3 m2/day and 0.074-0.460 m/day, respectively, indicating limited storage with potential for local groundwater supply for private consumption. Graphical fits for observed and estimated rainfall and groundwater levels were mostly comparable, though scatter plots indicated cases of underestimation and overestimation of observed values. R2, COR, NSE, RMSE and RE values were 0.76 and 0.7, 0.87 and 0.84, 0.75 and 0.68, 3.67 and 3.03 mm and 30 and 29% for both calibration and validation runs, respectively, for NPR model. R2, COR, NSE, RMSE and RE were 0.99 and 0.86, 0.97 and 0.93, 0.99 and 0.84, 0.03 and 0.01 m and 0.08 and 0.11% for both calibration and validation runs, respectively, for OE-NLHW model. The models were therefore found to have efficient calibration and validation, and were thus, suitable for data extension. Estimated groundwater levels, streamflow and groundwater recharge for both calibration and validation runs of the GW-PITMAN model, generally fluctuated with changes in rainfall, indicating that they are realistic. Majority (9 out of 10) of the historical statistics were mostly well preserved by VLB, except for skewness. Historic highest groundwater levels were also not well preserved. Superimposing the cumulative demands on the base yield curves and analysis of percentages of water demands that can be supplied indicated that the groundwater system could not meet the water demands at all times. To promote sustainable multipurpose use of water that can enhance rural livelihoods, allocating water using priority classification was found to be essential. Operating rule curves for groundwater supply were derived using a risk-based approach. The operating rule curves indicated that if priority classification is used all water demands are met up to maximum groundwater level of 25 m. The developed operating rule curves are therefore expected to improve water supply to both domestic and productive water uses, if they are adequately implemented and hence improve livelihoods. The procedures followed in developing risk-based groundwater operating rules for Siloam Village were summarised to assist in their application in any delineated groundwater resource unit. Though minimal infrastructure is available to support implementation of the operating rules, additional monitoring boreholes are required to aid in estimation of average groundwater levels for further calibration and validation of the GW-PITMAN model. Detailed geological and geophysical investigation are required to improve on characterisation of the GRU and its hydrogeological conceptual model. Undertaking a study of this nature in other areas including those which are data-scarce could promote wide implementation of risk-based groundwater operating rules. / NRF

Thesis (M. Dev. (Planning and Management)) -- University of Limpopo, 2019 / The provision of basic water services delivery to all South African citizens is one of the huge challenges for the local government and it is at the coalface of service delivery. The objective of the study was to determine the factors that influence water service delivery challenges in the local municipality of Makhuduthamaga, in Sekhukhune District Municipality. The statement of the problem, therefore, provided the foundation within which the aims of the study are explained. The significance of this research cannot be over-emphasised, especially against the backdrop that local government is the third sphere of government and is in the front line of service delivery. This study aimed at investigating the water service delivery challenges in the municipality of Makhuduthamaga in Sekhukhune District, Limpopo province. This research was necessitated by the lack of water in Makhuduthamaga Local Municipality. It is evident that there are several challenges in the delivery of water services in the local sphere, however, for the sake of this research only one municipality was selected as a case study. The study employed a qualitative case study research design to collect data from participants who were selected through a purposive sampling technique. The study participants included the local community representatives and the municipal officials responsible for water services in the municipality and the water resources available in the locality such as the Vergelegen, Nkadimeng and De Hoop dams. The finding shows that the available water sources are not adequate to cater for all the residents of the municipality; hence this affects the water delivery efforts of the municipality significantly. As a result, local residents have expressed their dissatisfaction through violent service delivery protests in different wards of the municipality. The study further reveals that the municipality has been facing serious water services challenges over several years. The issue emanates from the water sources which are dried up, illegal connections, incomplete projects by contractors, financial constraints, and poor maintenance planning. The main challenge here is the lack of water sources, poor maintenance, lack of skills and expertise from the employees in the water department, insufficient budget to relieve the water crisis in the municipality and the district at large. The municipality has implemented all the interventions, such as public participation to vi encourage communities to use water sparingly, to pay for services of the municipality for the sake of revenue enhancement and have drilled more boreholes to augment the water services to the communities. This study recommends that the municipality should prioritise their budgeting and align this to the community needs, hiring the correct personnel with relevant skills and expertise in the water related function. Also, the municipality needs to work on the turnaround time for the maintenance of pump stations and fixing of leaking water pipes. They should penalise all the illegally connected households so that they can curb all the recurring illegal connections. The other issue is to improve communications with the communities with relevant stakeholders to ensure that everyone is informed in case of water cuts due to maintenance or cleaning of water reservoirs.