Os métodos termo-analíticos são ferramentas úteis na avaliação da compatibilidade entre fármacos e adjuvantes, com destaque à calorimetria exploratória diferencial. Neste trabalho foram avaliados a compatibilidade e o comportamento térmico entre a isoniazida e adjuvantes tecnológicos primários usualmente empregados em formas farmacêuticas sólidas. A compatibilidade foi examinada por meio da preparação de misturas físicas binárias do tipo fármaco/adjuvante. Foi investigada também a influência da granulação por via úmida e do processo de compactação para as misturas de isoniazida e adjuvantes com função de material de enchimento e carga e deslizante. A isoniazida apresentou um comportamento térmico não encontrado na literatura. Os adjuvantes avaliados foram: ácido esteárico, amido, celulose microcristalina, crospovidona, croscarmelose sódica, dióxido de silício coloidal estearato de magnésio, glicolato de amido sódico, hipromelose, lactose, manitol, polidona e talco. Para as misturas físicas, a maioria dos adjuvantes mostrou-se compatível com o fármaco em questão. Foram verificadas interações com o ácido esteárico, o glicolato de amido sódico, a lactose, o manitol e a povidona. A isoniazida mostrou a formação de uma mistura eutética com o manitol e de interação química com a lactose. A agregação por via úmida e o processo de compactação não mostraram influências adicionais na compatibilidade das misturas avaliadas. Os resultados observados foram confirmados por métodos não-térmicos como difratometria de raios X, espectroscopia de infravermelho e ressonância nuclear magnética. / Thermo-analytical methods, and specially Differential Scanning Calorimetry, are useful support for the evaluation of compatibility between drug substances and pharmaceutical excipients. In this work were studied the compatibility and the thermal behavior of isoniazid and pharmaceutical excipients, commonly used for the formulation of solid dosage forms. Colloidal silicon dioxide, corn starch, crospovidone, hypromellose, lactose, magnesium stearate, mannitol, microcrystalline cellulose, povidone, sodium croscarmellose, sodium starch glycolate, stearic acid and talc were the excipients employed in these experiments. The compatibility was analyzed testing binary physical drug/excipient admixtures. The effect of wet granulation and compression was also investigated, in this case especially between isoniazid, fillers and lubricant. For almost all excipients no incompatibilities with isoniazid were observed. Interactions were detected when the drug substance was added to stearic acid, sodium starch glycolate, lactose, mannitol and povidone. Isoniazid formed a euthetic mixture with mannitol, whereas a possible chemical reaction occurred between isoniazid and lactose. Wet granulation and compaction of the tested admixtures did not affect the results observed above. These observations were confirmed by non-thermal techniques, such as X-Ray diffractometry, infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance.

L'homogénéité des caractéristiques est garantie par une présence en fibres constante en tout point du matériau. La dispersion d'une espèce dans une autre est régie par des mécanismes de convection et/ou de diffusion. Pour des objets de la taille d'une fibre métallique, ces deux phénomènes trouvent leur origine dans le cisaillement appliqué au matériau, une donnée souvent inconnue et difficile à mesurer dans des malaxeurs à béton. Dans un premier temps, nous proposons une méthode permettant d'estimer l'efficacité d'un malaxeur. Elle est basée sur la mesure du diamètre moyen de granules de ciment fabriqués dans ce malaxeur. Nous montrons que la mesure de ce diamètre moyen permet de quantifier le cisaillement moyen. Dans un second temps, nous présentons un moyen de mesurer la dispersion des fibres pendant le malaxage des bétons à base de mesures de résistivité électrique. Puis, dans un troisième temps, nous mesurons la présence en fibres pendant le malaxage et relions le temps nécessaire à l'obtention d'une répartition homogène à la capacité de cisaillement du malaxeur / Fibers are added to the concrete to give it news properties. The homogeneity of these characteristics is assured by a constant presence of fiber as the whole material. The dispersion of one species within another is governed by convection and/or diffusion mechanisms. Concerning objects having the size of steel fiber, these two phenomena are caused by the shearing applied to the material, an unknown and difficult to measure datum in the case of concrete mixer. To begin, a method allowing to estimate the mixer's shearing is suggested. This method is based on the measurement of the medium diameter of cement aggregates produced in the mixer. The link between the medium diameter and the mean shearing is established. In a second time, a mean to measure fiber dispersion from electrical resistivity measurements during the concrete mixing is presented. Then, in a third time, fiber dispersion are measured during mixing. The link between necessary time to obtain an homogeneous distribution and the mixer's shearing ability is established

Twin screw wet granulation has been proved as a feasible alternative for traditional batch granulation process due to its continuous processing feature; considered as a significant processing method especially in the pharmaceutical industry. This thesis will explore the processibility of twin screw wet granulation with various formulations. The first section of the thesis focused on examining the processibility of wet granulation in a twin screw while using various grades of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) as an extended-release excipient. The method to find the processibility was by modifying the liquid-to-solid ratio for each formulation. The process window was defined by examining the amount of granules that fall in a pre-determined acceptable size range. This part focused on three substitution types of HPMC (Type 2910, Type 2208, and Type 2906) that varied in molecular weights. It was found that only Type 2910 HPMC showed a shift in the process window (also known as granulation range) in relation to the molecular weight of the formulations. A higher demand for binder liquid was found for higher molecular weight Type 2910 HPMC in order to form granules with acceptable sizes. The second part of this thesis was focused on understanding the process variables that might influence the processibility of the HPMC formulations. This part examined the impact of feed rate on the granulation range of Type 2910 HPMC specifically was examined. Multiple feed rates were tested, and it was found that the granulation range for lower molecular weight Type 2910 HPMC was easier to shrink when higher feed rates were applied. A transition in the granule formation method from liquid-bridging to compaction with respect to the feed rate was found for low molecular weight HPMC, whereas the high molecular weight HPMC always formed granules through compaction at all feed rates due to strong water retainability. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

Malaria is a life–threatening disease caused by Plasmodium spp and causes over one million deaths annually. The complex life cycle of the malaria parasite offers several points of attack for the antimalarial drugs. The rapid spread of resistance against antimalarial drugs, especially chloroquine and pyrimethamine–sulphadoxine, emphasises the need for new alternatives or modification of existing drugs. Artemisinin–based combination therapies (ACT’s) with different targets prevent or delay the development of drug resistance and therefore have been adopted as first–line therapy by all endemic countries. Proguanil–dapsone, an antifolate combination is more active than pyrimethamine–sulphadoxine and is being considered as an alternative to pyrimethamine–sulphadoxine. Artesunate–proguanil–dapsone is a new ACT that has wellmatched pharmacokinetics and is relatively rapidly eliminated; therefore there is a reduced risk of exposure to any single compound and potentially a decreasing risk of resistance. A few studies have been done on a triple fixed–dose combination therapy for malaria treatment and such a combination for artesunate, proguanil and dapsone are not currently investigated, manufactured or distributed. The aim of this study was to develop a triple fixed–dose combination for artesunate, proguanil and dapsone. The formulation was developed in three phases; basic formulation development, employing factorial design to obtain two possible optimised formulations and evaluating the optimised formulations. During the formulation development the most suitable manufacturing procedure and excipients were selected. A full 24 factorial design (four factors at two levels) was used to obtain the optimised formulations. As end–points to identify the optimised formulations, weight variation, friability, crushing strength and disintegration of the tablets, were used. Statistical analysis (one way ANOVA) was used to identify optimal formulations. To identify any interaction between the active pharmaceutical ingredients (API’s) and the API’s and excipients, differential scanning calorimetry was done. Flow properties of the powder mixtures (of the optimised formulations) were characterised by means of angle of repose; critical orifice diameter (COD); bulk density and tapped density; and flow rate. Tablets of the two optimised powder formulations were compressed. The tablets were evaluated and characterised in terms of weight variation, friability, crushing strength, disintegration and dissolution behaviour. Initial formulation development indicated that wet granulation was the most suitable manufacturing method. The results from the factorial design indicated that different amounts (% w/w) of the lubricant and binder as well as two different fillers influenced the weight variation, crushing strength and disintegration statistically significant. Two formulations containing two different fillers (microcrystalline cellulose or Avicel® PH 101, and lactose or Granulac® 200) were found to be within specifications and ideal for manufacturing. Tablets prepared from the FA formulation (formulation containing Avicel® PH 101) complied with the standards and guidelines for weight variation, friability, crushing strength and disintegration as set by the British Pharmacopoeia (BP). Tablets had an average crushing strength of 121.56 ± 0.022 N. Tablets disintegrated within 52.00 seconds and a maximum weight loss of 0.68% occurred during the friability test. Weight variation of the tablets prepared from the FG formulation (formulation containing Granulac® 200) complied with the standards. Average crushing strength was 91.99 ± 6.008 N and the tablets disintegrated within 140.00 seconds. Percentage friability (1.024%) did not comply with the guideline of a percentage friability of less than 1%, however, no cracked or broken tablets were seen. Dissolution showed that 98, 93 and 94% of artesunate, proguanil and dapsone were respectively released (of the label value) within 15 minutes for the FA formulations. Release of artesunate, proguanil and dapsone for the FG formulation was 62, 85 and 92% for the same time period. The release of the three API’s (the FG formulation) increased to 78, 89 and 92%, respectively, after 45 minutes. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

Malaria is a life–threatening disease caused by Plasmodium spp and causes over one million deaths annually. The complex life cycle of the malaria parasite offers several points of attack for the antimalarial drugs. The rapid spread of resistance against antimalarial drugs, especially chloroquine and pyrimethamine–sulphadoxine, emphasises the need for new alternatives or modification of existing drugs. Artemisinin–based combination therapies (ACT’s) with different targets prevent or delay the development of drug resistance and therefore have been adopted as first–line therapy by all endemic countries. Proguanil–dapsone, an antifolate combination is more active than pyrimethamine–sulphadoxine and is being considered as an alternative to pyrimethamine–sulphadoxine. Artesunate–proguanil–dapsone is a new ACT that has wellmatched pharmacokinetics and is relatively rapidly eliminated; therefore there is a reduced risk of exposure to any single compound and potentially a decreasing risk of resistance. A few studies have been done on a triple fixed–dose combination therapy for malaria treatment and such a combination for artesunate, proguanil and dapsone are not currently investigated, manufactured or distributed. The aim of this study was to develop a triple fixed–dose combination for artesunate, proguanil and dapsone. The formulation was developed in three phases; basic formulation development, employing factorial design to obtain two possible optimised formulations and evaluating the optimised formulations. During the formulation development the most suitable manufacturing procedure and excipients were selected. A full 24 factorial design (four factors at two levels) was used to obtain the optimised formulations. As end–points to identify the optimised formulations, weight variation, friability, crushing strength and disintegration of the tablets, were used. Statistical analysis (one way ANOVA) was used to identify optimal formulations. To identify any interaction between the active pharmaceutical ingredients (API’s) and the API’s and excipients, differential scanning calorimetry was done. Flow properties of the powder mixtures (of the optimised formulations) were characterised by means of angle of repose; critical orifice diameter (COD); bulk density and tapped density; and flow rate. Tablets of the two optimised powder formulations were compressed. The tablets were evaluated and characterised in terms of weight variation, friability, crushing strength, disintegration and dissolution behaviour. Initial formulation development indicated that wet granulation was the most suitable manufacturing method. The results from the factorial design indicated that different amounts (% w/w) of the lubricant and binder as well as two different fillers influenced the weight variation, crushing strength and disintegration statistically significant. Two formulations containing two different fillers (microcrystalline cellulose or Avicel® PH 101, and lactose or Granulac® 200) were found to be within specifications and ideal for manufacturing. Tablets prepared from the FA formulation (formulation containing Avicel® PH 101) complied with the standards and guidelines for weight variation, friability, crushing strength and disintegration as set by the British Pharmacopoeia (BP). Tablets had an average crushing strength of 121.56 ± 0.022 N. Tablets disintegrated within 52.00 seconds and a maximum weight loss of 0.68% occurred during the friability test. Weight variation of the tablets prepared from the FG formulation (formulation containing Granulac® 200) complied with the standards. Average crushing strength was 91.99 ± 6.008 N and the tablets disintegrated within 140.00 seconds. Percentage friability (1.024%) did not comply with the guideline of a percentage friability of less than 1%, however, no cracked or broken tablets were seen. Dissolution showed that 98, 93 and 94% of artesunate, proguanil and dapsone were respectively released (of the label value) within 15 minutes for the FA formulations. Release of artesunate, proguanil and dapsone for the FG formulation was 62, 85 and 92% for the same time period. The release of the three API’s (the FG formulation) increased to 78, 89 and 92%, respectively, after 45 minutes. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

<p dir="ltr">Flow patterns in a toroidal-fluidized bed granulator were analyzed using the effects of wall friction on the bed pressure drop. Toroidal flows were generated by directionally inclined jets from a radially-slotted distributor plate. The relatively small open area of the slotted distributor provides significant jet velocities, inducing toroidal flow even at relatively low superficial airflows. In this aspect, the process is of interest to fluidized bed granulation wherein the toroidal flow can assist spray flux without excessive elutriation. The current dissertation explores the effect of toroidal multiphase flow on wall friction and pressure drop. Relevant process parameters include particle size, airflow, temperature, and bed inventory. Particle size growth is especially important in fluidized bed granulation; airflow and temperature parameters must balance with the binder spray enthalpy; and the bed inventory is relevant to capacity and throughput analyses. An empirical process model was developed to guide fluidized bed granulation with a consistent pressure-drop balance across the distributor plate and product bed during the granulation process.</p><p dir="ltr">Fluidized bed granulation integrates several process transformations into a single unit operation. Transformations include powder fluidization, atomization of binder solution and wetting of the fluidized powder, growth and consolidation of granules, drying, and discharge of the fluidized product. The balance of the binder addition and drying rates is used in combination with fluidization (i.e., flow field) parameters to control the process. Balanced control of fluidization can be challenging in the context of micronized powders, prone to elutriation, for example as required in some pharmaceutical formulations. This manuscript explores the effects of thermodynamic and flow field parameters on the size and shape distributions of a challenging pharmaceutical formulation. Pre-wetting the powder mixture prior to fluidization effectively reduces elutriation, stabilizes the fluidization process, and results in narrower granule size distributions. Optimizing blowback pressure can further stabilize the process. These strategies contribute to improved control of fluidized bed granulation, particularly for challenging pharmaceutical formulations, enhancing both product quality and process efficiency.</p><p dir="ltr">A regime map for a challenging pharmaceutical formulation was developed to link operational parameters to granule characteristics, establishing a stable processing space that connects moisture gain with particle size and shape distributions and uniformity. This comprehensive framework supports scale-up and reliable application of fluid bed granulation in pharmaceutical and related industries, contributing to improved process efficiency and product quality. The findings presented here advance the scientific understanding of toroidal fluid bed granulation and offer practical and actionable strategies for controlling this process.</p>