This dissertation examines the use of argumentum ad baculum in preaching in general and the sermons of George Whitefield in particular. Argumentum ad baculum has traditionally been considered an informal fallacy of relevance. The fallacy can be defined as an appeal to force or an appeal to fear. Chapter 1 discusses the relationship of argumentum ad baculum with the empirical study of fear appeals and the rhetorical use of pathos. Attention is also given to the preaching of Whitefield and his place in the history of preaching as an innovator. Whitefield's role in the shift to a more passionate and emotional sermon style is noted. The chapter also addresses the challenges a study of Whitefield's sermons presents. Chapter 2 is devoted to defining argumentum ad baculum, examining the history of the phrase, the two ways it has been defined, the nature of it as a fallacy, and fear appeals as a part of the definition. The chapter includes a discussion of source credibility in relation to fear appeals. Chapter 3 analyses the sermons of Whitefield to identify his use of fear appeals. The types of fear appeals he used in his sermons are listed along with evidentiary sermon material. The types of material Whitefield used to formulate the appeals are also discussed. Chapter 4 gives attention to the effect of Whitefield's fear appeals on his auditors. In order for an appeal to be effective, it must first arouse fear in the recipients of the appeal. Historical narratives are examined from Whitefield himself, eyewitness accounts, and personal testimonies of those who were present at his meetings. The chapter provides evidence of the general and specific effect of Whitefield's fear appeals. Chapter 5 concerns the ethicality of Whitefield's appeals. The chapter surveys a number of standards for ethical judgment. The chapter argues that Whitefield's use of fear in his published sermons was ethical, primarily because of the intention with which he used them. Chapter 6 offers guidelines for the contemporary use of argumentum ad baculum in preaching. Modern audiences are unaccustomed to the use of fear for persuasive means. However, this type of argumentation can be used ethically and effectively.

Several biographies of Whitefield have been written, chiefly in the nineteenth century, but none of them endeavours to reveal his theology in any extensive fashion. This thesis is an examination of the theological principles and emphases which guided this great preacher who, together with the two Wesleys, stands in the forefront of those men responsible for the Evangelical Revival of the eighteenth century. Throughout, an attempt has been made to reflect the theology of the Revivalists as a whole, to discover whether Whitefield's theology followed primarily the same lines as that theology, and, particularly, to set his theology over against the theological trends of the age and to trace his Calvinism as it touched the generally Arminian tendencies of the Wesleyan development of Methodism. It was inevitable that a fairly full account of the well-known controversy between John Wesley and Whitefield over the question of predestination and other allied doctrines, should be given (Chapter Three). In place of the usual "Summary and Conclusion" which, as the final chapter, would normally have recapitulated in a straightforward manner the doctrines dealt with in the previous pages and have entailed much repetition of conclusions already written into the main body of the thesis, it has been thought more profitable to disclose and compare assessments of Whitefield's theology made in his own and later times, and to base a conclusion on these, bearing in mind always the results of the present research. At all times an attempt has been made to let the preacher speak for himself. Hence the rather full and numerous quotations introduced from his own works. It should be noted that the volume of Whitefield's "Sermons" used throughout and quoted in the footnotes etc. is the one entitled "Sermons on Important Subjects by the Rev. George Whitefield, A.M., with the Character of the Author by the Rev. Joseph Smith" (printed London, 1825 - the same reprinted London, 1828). All quotations from Whitefield's works, it will be observed, have been edited as regards punctuation where it has been considered necessary to alter these for the sake of a more fluent and readable text. In doing this, the sense of the passages concerned has been carefully maintained. It is hoped that the first Appendix will be helpful for quick reference to the chronology of Whitefield, if need should arise.

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This dissertation examines the preaching ministry of George Whitefield as a precursor to presuppositional apologetics in relation to the cultural shift of the Enlightenment. The presupposition of the authority of the Word of God is the concept that bridges Whitefield’s preaching and presuppositional apologetics. Chapter 1 presents the research questions narrowing the topic. This section also presents background information as well as methodology of this work. Chapter 2 describes the biographical information of Whitefield. The cultural influences marked his life from an early age, but it was the influence of John and Charles Wesley that guided his faith. Chapter 3 outlines the thought of the Enlightenment period. Specifically, rationalism as a means to discerning and living by truth. Philosophical influences such as Locke, Newton, Hume, Descartes, and Kant are overviewed. The First Great Awakening was the result of many cultural and theological ideas boiling over simultaneously. People were craving truth, direction, and a sense of authority. The Awakening highlighted the movement of the Holy Spirit theologically and a resurgence of biblical truth culturally. The work of John Wesley and Jonathan Edwards is also detailed in regards to their efforts to combat rationalism as sole priority in worldview thinking. Chapter 4 highlights the apologetic within the polemic of Whitefield. His Calvinistic theology is identified and connected to the Articles of faith for the Church of England. This leads to the idea of presuppositional apologetics found within his preaching. Cornelius Van Til, the father of presuppositional apologetics, is also overviewed to show the distinct connection between Whitefield’s thoughts in holding a high view of Scripture and what becomes presuppositional apologetics. Chapter 5 examines the sermons of Whitefield for specific content related to evangelical pushback against Enlightenment thought. Key propositions of the Enlightenment regarding authority, morality, and ultimate truth are answered within the preaching of Whitefield. Each are examined thoroughly. Chapter 6 presents a conclusion regarding the apologetic of Whitefield in his preaching towards the Enlightenment. It reveals connections between the presupposition of the authority of the revelation of God and his polemic. Other connections between the reformer John Calvin and the father of presuppositional apologetics, Cornelius Van Til, are also noted.