Since 1970, Rio Grande wild turkey (Meleagris gallapavo intermedia) numbers in the southern region of the Edwards Plateau of Texas have been declining. Nest-site characteristics and invertebrate abundance were hypothesized as limiting wild turkey numbers in declining regions. Wild turkeys were trapped and fitted with mortality-sensitive radio transmitters on 4 study areas; 2 within a region of stable (northern Edwards Plateau) populations, and 2 within a region of declining populations. Monitoring occurred from February 2001 to August 2003. Nest-site locations were determined via homing during the breeding season. Following nesting attempts/completions, nest fate, vegetation height, visual obstruction, litter depth, percent cover, and cover scores of forbs, grass, litter, and bare ground at each nest site and surrounding area were sampled. This was done to determine if wild turkey hens selected nest sites with vegetative characteristics differing from surrounding habitat. Brood survival was calculated as >1 poult surviving to 2-weeks. Broods were followed for 6-weeks post-hatch or to brood failure. Invertebrates were collected, via sweep-net and D-vac, at each visually confirmed brood location and a paired random site to determine if wild turkey hens selected brood habitat based on invertebrate abundance. Analyses were performed to determine if invertebrate abundance differed between study regions. Turkey hens selected nest sites with greater visual obstruction and more litter depth on both regions of stable and declining turkey abundance. No vegetative differences were detected between stable and declining region nest sites. Frequency of Orthoptera was 3–5 times greater at nest sites on stable regions than declining regions in all 3 years. Orthoptera is a noted food source for young galliformes and comprised the majority of dry mass in invertebrate samples, nest sites and brood locations, on both the stable and declining regions. No differences in total invertebrate dry mass were detected between regional brood locations. Nest-site vegetative characteristics did not alter nest success between regions. The 2 overall objectives of this study were to determine if nest-site vegetation characteristics and invertebrate abundance affected wild turkey numbers in the Edwards Plateau. Regional differences in vegetative characteristics were not detected, thus not likely to be causing differences in turkey numbers between regions. Nest-site invertebrates were found to be 3–5 times greater at stable region nest sites, possibly giving wild turkey poults from stable regions greater initial chances of survival.

To determine possible causes of declining Rio Grande wild turkey (RGWT; Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) abundance in the southern Edwards Plateau, research was conducted on 4 sites, 2 with stable (S [SA and SB]; Kerr and Real counties) and 2 with declining (D [DA and DB]; Bandera County) RGWT populations. RGWTs were trapped, radio-tagged, and tracked. Ranges were constructed with 95% kernels. Data on brood survival and invertebrate and predator abundances were combined with range characteristics to assess habitat at a landscape scale. Annual range sizes did not differ in year 1, but were larger in S than in D in year 2. Range sizes in S increased from year 1 to year 2 while there was no change in range sizes in D. Range overlap was higher in D than S in both years. Movement distances remained consistent in S for both years, but were larger in D during year 1. During year 1 and year 2, RGWT females exhibited larger reproductive ranges and less range overlap in S. Invertebrate abundance for 4 insect orders was 2.5–15.9 times greater in S than in D while coyote abundance was 2–3 times greater in D than in S. Results were similar in year 3, with the exception of SB, where reproductive ranges and spatial arrangement were smaller than all other sites. My results refute the conventional assumption that larger ranges are indicative of poorer habitat quality. Range overlap suggests that useable space may have been limiting in D in the less productive year 2. In D, multiple broods used the same reproductive range, presumably depleting resources faster than in S. Greater predator abundance in D increased the risk of brood predation. The smaller reproductive spatial arrangement of SB females in year 3 correlates there being >3 times the percentage of females missing in other sites. If SB females moved further in year 3 than the detection distance of the radio telemetry equipment, the results would fit the pattern of greater dispersion distance in SA. RGWT females may attempt to separate themselves from other breeding females, possibly to avoid nest or brood predation and/or potential competition for brood resources.

Although prescribed burning has been used frequently for manipulating habitat, it has been rarely used in grassland areas with the intent to improve habitat quality for wild turkeys (Meleagris gallapavo). I studied breeding season and nest location habitat use of wild turkey hens in response to grassland fire management, and quantified its impact on foraging habitat and insect prey for turkey poults, in a diverse agricultural landscape in southern Illinois. Fire management was conducted on 28 ha of grassland in March and April 2012. Radiolocations from 64 radiomarked hens from 2008-2010 and 44 radiomarked hens from 2012-2013 were used to create turkey habitat and nest location models for both pre-fire and post-fire time periods. Areas used by turkeys throughout all models and time periods were characterized by high proportions of forested habitat. Nest locations during both time periods also included areas with higher percentages of shrubland and edge habitat. Turkey use areas during the post-fire time period were found to be further from burned areas, suggesting that fires on short rotations (1-2 years) were slightly detrimental to habitat needed during the breeding season and for nest locations. Field trials using human-imprinted wild (n=54) and commercial (n=64) strain turkey poults were conducted to assess the foraging efficiency and mobility of poult type within burned and unburned grassland sections. Foraging efficiency of turkey poults did not differ between burned or unburned fields, or between wild and commercial strain poults. All poults showed selection of invertebrate categories Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and Isopoda throughout all grassland field trials, whereas avoidance of Araneae, Diptera, Entognatha, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, and Orthoptera was exhibited by all poults in all trials. There was evidence to believe that burned grasslands increased the travel efficiency of poults compared to unburned grasslands. Wild poults were able to travel further distances and along less sinuous paths than commercial poults.

Planted pine (Pinus spp.) comprises nearly 10% of the total land cover in the state of Mississippi. Often, understory structure is limited in this system. Thus, managers use a variety of management practices to improve understory biomass and structure. I assessed the impacts of common forest management practices (canopy reduction, prescribed fire, and selective herbicide application) and their combined effects on aspects of community structure. More specifically, I assessed impacts of disturbance intensity on non-native plant invasions, and evaluated how microscale vegetation characteristics influenced use by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and wild turkey (Mealagris gallopavo). Combining canopy reductions with prescribed fire, which closely mimicked historical intermediate disturbance intensities in this vegetation type, led to the greatest invasion resistance due to high abundances of native plants. Both deer and turkey increased use in areas with high levels of understory cover. Coupling canopy reductions with prescribed fire created the most favorable conditions for both species.

The eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallapovo silvestris) was nearly extirpated from the Mississippi Alluvial Valley (MAV) from overharvesting and habitat loss in the early 1900s. Habitat restoration with hardwood regeneration has likely improved habitat suitability for turkeys in the MAV. I studied establishment and movement of translocated turkeys to assess feasibility of turkey restoration in the MAV. Turkeys were translocated to 2 study sites in the MAV during winters of 2009 and 2010. I monitored movement, survival, and resource selection of translocated turkeys using radio telemetry (February 2009–April 2011). Movement increased with increasing resource dispersion. Mortalities did not differ among 4 causes. Biweekly survival of translocated turkeys was related inversely to spring precipitation, but related positively to precipitation during other seasons. Mature and regenerating hardwood forests served as nesting and brooding habitat; therefore, increasing hardwood forests will likely improve success of future turkey restoration in the MAV.

Current eastern wild turkey (<I>Meleagris gallopavo silvestris</I>) harvest models assume density-independent population dynamics despite indications that populations are subject to a form of density dependence. I suggest that both density-dependent and independent factors operate simultaneously on wild turkey populations, where the relative strength of each is governed by population density. I attempt to estimate the form of the density dependence relationship in wild turkey population growth using the theta-Ricker model. Density-independent relationships are explored between production and rainfall and temperature correlates for possible inclusion in the harvest model. Density-dependent and independent effects are then combined in the model to compare multiple harvest strategies. To estimate a functional relationship between population growth and density, I fit the theta-Ricker model to harvest index time-series from 11 state wildlife agencies. To model density-independent effects on population growth, I explored the ability of rainfall, temperature, and mast during the nesting and brooding season to predict observed production indices for 7 states. I then built a harvest model incorporating estimates to determine their influence on the mean and variability of the fall and spring harvest. Estimated density-dependent growth rates produced a left-skewed yield curve maximized at ~40% of carrying capacity, with large residuals. Density-independent models of production varied widely and were characterized by high model uncertainty. Results indicate a non-linear density dependence effect strongest at low population densities. High residuals from the model fit indicate that extrinsic factors will overshadow density-dependent factors at most population densities. However, environmental models were weak, requiring more data with higher precision. This indicates that density-independence can be correctly and more easily modeled as random error. The constructed model uses both density dependence and density-independent stochastic error as a tool to explore harvest strategies for biologists. The inclusion of weak density dependence changes expected harvest rates little from density-independent models. However, it does lower the probability of overharvest at low densities. Alternatives to proportional harvesting are explored to reduce the uncertainty in annual harvests. / Ph. D.

This investigation of the methods of restocking unoccupied wild turkey habitat in Virginia was conducted primarily to determine the success or failure of the propagation pen program during the 195% breeding season and to compare the success of this type of restocking with restocking programs of other states using wild-trapped turkeys. / Master of Science

Pollinator-friendly wildflower and native grass plantings are increasingly incentivized by state and federal agencies to improve ecosystem services provided by pollinating insects on farmland. However, the potential ecosystem service benefits, or even disservices, of pollinator-friendly plantings relative to wildlife, such as resident, migratory, and nesting birds (e.g., wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo)), resident and migratory bats, and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are of interest to both landowners and conservation managers. First, we studied bird species diversity, presence, density, and nesting on farms planted with and without pollinator-friendly plantings to evaluate the potential value of these plantings to bird-related values, such as cultural, recreational, and pest-regulating ecosystem services. Second, we quantified bat relative activity through recorded echolocation calls and explored how relative nightly activity varied across common cover types on a farm, by survey year, and by maternity (May-August) versus non-maternity season (September-April). Third, we determined whether white-tailed deer and wild turkey camera trap success and occupancy differed between farms with and without pollinator-friendly farmscaped plots, evaluated along with their relationships to percent cover of natural, developed, crop, and water habitats within 1 km of surveyed farms. We conducted bird point counts across 20 farms on the Eastern Shore of Virginia and Maryland and the city of Virginia Beach, VA during the Spring and Fall of 2017 and 2018. We searched for bird nests in pollinator-friendly plots during the summers of 2017 and 2018. There were no differences in alpha diversity, defined as the number of species per farm per survey period, between control and pollinator farms in either Spring or Fall. We did find differences in species evenness on farms during Spring surveys, as measured by Simpson's index, with pollinator farms having a higher mean Simpson's index. When examining factors relating to presence/absence of our 15 modeled bird species out of 110 species detected on farms, landscape-level cover types were influential in 14 species and presence of pollinator plots was influential for 5 species. After stratification of density estimates by control and pollinator farm study sites, we found that during Spring surveys, the blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata) and Carolina wren (Thryothorus ludovicianus) had lower density on pollinator farms. In the Fall, the blue grosbeak (Passerina caerulea) had higher density on pollinator farms. We found nesting in the pollinator-friendly plots by red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus; n=7). These nests were placed in locations within the pollinator plots with higher forb coverage than random points in the same plots without nests. We estimated the presence and relative activity of bats in 4 cover types, including forest trail, a forested pond edge, a crop field on forest edge, and a farmscaped wildflower plot, on the Eastern Shore Agricultural Research Extension Center in Painter, Virginia, from April 2017- November 2019 using acoustic detectors. Of total detections, 20.11% were identified as big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus), 17.97% evening bat (Nycticeius humeralis), 15.35% silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans), 7.11% eastern red bats (Lasiurus borealis), 3.66% hoary bats (Lasiurus cinereus), 3.1% little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus), and 1.38% tricolored bat (Perimyotis subflavus). Relative activity measured by calls per night varied by cover type, with relative activity highest for all 7 species in the crop field-forest edge and water-forest edge cover types as compared to pollinator plot and forest trail cover types during the maternity season (May-August). All 7 bat species were recorded in the pollinator plot cover type; of the 8,877 calls in pollinator plots, 26.07% were silver-haired bat, 25.21% eastern red bats, 23.78% evening bat, 9.32% hoary bats, 9.11% little brown bat, 5.42% big brown bat, and 1.09% tricolored bat. We used camera trap surveys to measure white-tailed deer and wild turkey occupancy across 20 farms on the Eastern Shore of Virginia and in the city of Virginia Beach, Virginia during the Spring and Fall of 2017 and 2018. Of all wild species photographed, white-tailed deer were most abundant (TS, # captures/100 nights) each survey season, however this varied season to season (Spring 2017 = 98.44 TS, Fall 2017 = 106.01 TS, Spring 2018 = 80.52 TS, Fall 2018 = 99.71 TS). Wild turkey total survey camera trap success was low compared to deer and other wildlife (4.51 TS), and also varied seasonally (Spring 2017 = 1.73 TS, Fall 2017 = 1.50 TS, Spring 2018 = 7.63 TS, Fall 2018 = 5.95 TS). White-tailed deer were detected at all survey locations at least once, and the occupancy of deer decreased as the percentage of developed land within 1km of a farm increased in each survey season. The factors relating to wild turkey occupancy varied by season. In Spring 2017, wild turkey occupancy increased as the percent of natural cover within 1 km of a farm increased. In Spring 2018, wild turkey occupancy decreased as the percent of developed land within 1 km increased. However, landscape variables did not influence wild turkey occupancy in the Fall seasons; rather in Fall 2018 we found that wild turkey occupancy decreased as camera trap success of farm machinery being used increased. Overall, wild turkey had a fairly low presence on all survey sites with an occupancy ranging from 0.18-0.53%, and no clear relationship to explain the change in survey season to season or year to year. Based on these results, pollinator plot presence or absence was not found to influence detection or occupancy of either of these target game species. Rather, other factors, mainly landscape-scale features, were found to have the largest influence on both species' occupancy and presence. Our study is one of just a few in North America to demonstrate some potential benefits of pollinator-friendly plantings to multiple different wildlife species with cultural, recreational, and insect-regulating ecosystem service benefits to landowners. Generally, birds, bats, and our focal game species' presence relied on surrounding landscape variables and forest-edge configurations more than the presence of pollinator friendly plantings. This is probably in part due to the small size of our pollinator plots. We recommend that future work explore potentially increasing the size of pollinator plot plantings or placing pollinator plantings in locations on the landscape with the most surrounding natural area, and least development, to maximize the benefits of this resource to diverse wildlife species with home ranges that are often larger than any one farm. / Master of Science / Pollinator-friendly wildflower and native grass plantings are increasingly used by state and federal agencies to improve benefits from biodiversity such as increases in crop pollinating insects, but the potential benefits of such plantings for vertebrate wildlife are not well studied. We evaluated potential ecosystem services, or even disservices, of pollinator-friendly plantings related to vertebrate wildlife, such as resident, migratory, and nesting birds (e.g., wild turkey), resident and migratory bats, and white-tailed deer. Bird point counts were conducted across 20 farms on the Eastern Shore of Virginia and Maryland and the city of Virginia Beach, VA during the Spring and Fall of 2017 and 2018, and we searched for bird nests in pollinator-friendly plots during the summers of 2017 and 2018. Over the entire project, we saw 110 different species; 96 were identified as insectivorous, indicating the potential for insect regulating services from birds. The total number of bird species observed on farms with pollinator plots were higher than farms without (100 > 90). After division of density estimates between control and pollinator farm study sites, we found that during Spring surveys, the Carolina wren had lower density on pollinator farms while in the Fall the blue grosbeak had higher density on pollinator farms. We found 7 nests of red-winged blackbirds (n=7) in the pollinator-friendly plots and birds preferred nesting in locations within the pollinator plots with more dense flowering plants without woody stem coverage than random points without nests in the same plots. We examined the presence and relative activity of bats in 4 cover types, including forest trail, a forested pond edge, a crop field on forest edge, and a farmscaped wildflower plot on one of our farm sites at the Eastern Shore Agricultural Research Extension Center in Painter, Virginia, from April 2017- November 2019 using acoustic detectors that record bat echolocation. All 7 bat species were recorded in the pollinator plot cover type and of total farm detections, 20.11% were identified as big brown bat, 17.97% evening bat, 15.35% silver-haired bat, 7.11% eastern red bats, 3.66% hoary bats, 3.1% little brown bat, and 1.38% tricolored bat. As expected, relative activity varied by cover type, with relative activity highest for all 7 species in the crop field-forest edge and water-forest edge cover types as compared to pollinator plot and forest trail cover types during the maternity season (May-August). We used camera trap surveys to measure white-tailed deer and wild turkey camera trap success and occupancy across 20 farms on the Eastern Shore of Virginia and in the city of Virginia Beach, Virginia during the Spring and Fall of 2017 and 2018. Of all wild species photographed, white-tailed deer had the highest observations. Wild turkey detections were low compared to deer and other wildlife. White-tailed deer and wild turkey presence were not influenced by the presence of pollinator plots, but rather by other factors, mainly landscape features within 1 km. Our study is one of the first in North America to demonstrate some potential benefits of pollinator-friendly plantings to multiple different wildlife with cultural, recreational, and insect-regulating ecosystem service benefits to landowners. Generally, birds, bats, and our focal game specie's presence relied on surrounding landscape variables and forest-edge configurations than the presence of pollinator friendly plantings. This is probably in part due to the small size of our pollinator plots. We recommend that future work explore potentially increasing the size of pollinator plot plantings or placing pollinator plantings in locations on the landscape with the most surrounding natural area, and least development, to maximize the benefits of this resource to diverse wildlife species with home ranges that are often larger than any one farm.

This study is of the social organization of the wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia Sennett) on the Welder Wildlife Refuge in southern Texas. The earliest turkey nests hatched in April, with the peak of hatching a month or more later. These poults may remain with their mother until winter. This brood flock, however, often combined with other brood flocks to form composite brood flocks when the poults were a few weeks old. Hens not successful in rearing young combined into broodless flocks. The juvenile males left the brood flocks in late fall or winter. They remained a distinct unit, the sibling group. These sibling groups attempted to join adult male flocks which were composed of older sibling groups. Most often the juvenile sibling groups were forced to join others their own age to form juvenile male winter flocks. Female flocks, after losing their juvenile males, combined with other female flocks to form large bands of up to 200 females. In spring the adult male flocks split into sibling groups for breeding. The sibling groups joined the female bands on display grounds. Only the dominant male of the dominant sibling group mated while hens were on the display ground. Later in the breeding season the female bands split into their flocks and returned to former nesting areas. Resident flocks continued to use the display ground, but later broke up into nesting groups of 2-5 females localized near their nests. The male sibling groups accompanied the females from the display ground, but did not become territorial. Incubation or nest loss broke down the female nesting group. This in turn led to formation of brood flocks or broodless flocks of hens.

Vital rates and movement patterns of eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) have never been studied at the northern extent of their North American range in Manitoba, Canada. Using radio telemetry during 2011 and 2012, this study collected estimates of female spring/summer survival, reproductive success, dispersal, home range size, and habitat use. Females had a 53% survival probability, 82% nesting frequency, 29% nesting success, 35% hen success, 11.3 eggs/clutch, 89% hatching success, and a natality rate of 2.3. Winter weather and relatively high predator numbers appear to have caused annual variation in survival and hen success. Spring dispersal distances and home ranges averaged 8.2 km and 554.4 ha, respectively. Home ranges were selected in relation to forests, cattle feedlots, and grasslands; while within home ranges, individuals selected areas close to grasslands, forests, and intermittent streams. These results can be used when modeling current populations, managing harvest, and structuring future releases.