Master of Science / Department of Clinical Sciences / James W. Carpenter / In many species, temporary increases in glucocorticoids (GC) can be used to identify changes in adrenal activity in response to acute stressors. For this research, GC metabolites were identified in fecal extracts from various Atelopus species. The objectives were to identify possible correlates between GCs and health status, assess the impact of husbandry protocols on adrenal activity, and evaluate the sub-lethal effects of antifungal bacteria used for protection of frogs against the chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis; Bd). The first study examined whether fecal GC concentrations can be correlated with animal health and behavior changes in a captive setting. Atelopus zeteki with varying degrees of dermatitis were categorized based on the severity of their skin abnormalities and GC metabolite concentrations were analyzed to detect correlations between severity of disease and GC metabolite concentrations. Similarly, behaviors that may indicate elevated stress levels (e.g., time spent in hide) were analyzed to detect correlation between disease and behavior changes. There was no correlation between fecal GC metabolites and health status of the animal or between health status and amount of time spent in hide. The second study established ex situ colonies of two Panamanian frog species, Atelopus certus and Atelopus glyphus, to determine how male group size affects behavior and GC levels. When housed in groups of eight, animals initially had elevated GC concentrations and interacted aggressively, but these instances declined substantially in the first 2 weeks of being housed together. Thus, captive Atelopus populations can be housed in same-sex enclosures without causing sub-lethal stress on the individuals involved. The third study examined the ability of antifungal bacterium from Central America to propagate on Atelopus skin as a preventative treatment for Bd and the sub-lethal effects of each bacteria species on adrenal function based on GC analysis. Four species of bacteria (Pseudomonas sp., Pseudomonas putida, Chryseobacterium indolgenes, and Stenotrophomonas maltophili) were found to be successful Bd inhibitors in vitro. There were no detectable effects of bacterial exposure with GC metabolite concentrations over time for any of the treatments assessed.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Biology / Jack F. Cully, Jr. / Dispersal remains one of the most important, yet least understood, life history traits. As the vehicle of gene flow among populations, dispersal can both relieve inbreeding depression and prevent local adaptation. Regionally, dispersal can stabilize or destabilize metapopulations, given its critical roles in disease transmission among populations as well as recolonization following local extinction events. Furthermore, in light of climate change and increasing habitat loss and fragmentation, the ability to navigate through unfamiliar, unsuitable habitat between populations is essential to the long-term survival of a species across its range. In my dissertation, I present a multi-scale investigation of factors affecting gene flow and disease transmission among populations of a keystone species and an agricultural pest of the North American prairie: the black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus). Black-tailed prairie dogs are social, ground-dwelling squirrels that live in spatially isolated populations called colonies. First, we conducted a landscape genetic analysis of black-tailed prairie dogs throughout a large portion of their current range. Our estimates of gene flow indicate that the genetic neighborhood size of both male and female prairie dogs reaches 40-60 km within short-grass prairie, whereas colonies within mixed-grass prairie are more isolated. At a broad scale, we observed isolation-by-distance among colonies and great influence of grassland productivity on genetic connectivity; however, neither distance nor landscape characteristics greatly explained observed genetic differentiation among colonies separated by < 50 km. Last, we investigated whether landscape features could predict disease transmission patterns of sylvatic plague among colonies in short-grass prairie and found evidence that pastures act as corridors for plague transmission. Our results indicate that black-tailed prairie dogs are more resilient to habitat loss and fragmentation than other obligate grassland species and likely capable of transmitting sylvatic plague over long distances. Taken together, these studies illustrate how a multi-scale approach can reveal complexities of dispersal dynamics that would otherwise remain undetected.

Master of Landscape Architecture / Landscape Architecture/Regional and Community Planning / Brent Chamberlain / Anthropocentric disturbances are often the main driver behind the population decline of wildlife species. Bat species are of particular concern recently with large declines in populations worldwide. The conservation of bat species relies on knowledge about the relationship between species-specific needs and the effect urban environments have on individual species. Mexican Free-Tailed Bats (MFTBs) are listed on the IUCN Red List and play an important role in many ecosystems within the United States. Austin, Texas is home to the largest urban bat colony in the world, including MFTBs. Austin can continue to benefit from millions of dollars from ecotourism bat viewing sites and the natural control of insect populations provided by this species if urbanization does not cause a reduction in their population. The focus of this research is to develop a quantitative habitat suitability model for the MFTBs in urban areas to increase the understanding of possible MFTB habitat in the Austin Metropolitan area. A geographical information system was used to map the suitability of habitats for MFTBs in urban areas based off a typology for the needs of the species, which was created through a literature review of expert knowledge. This study will help to quantify the relationship between urban environments and the MFTBs, showing that urban areas in the Austin Metropolitan area are suitable for the species. A predictive model, like the one described here, can act as a crucial assessment and planning tool for bat conservation by helping to eliminate challenges of tracking populations or identifying bats during nocturnal activities. This model informs the proposal of planning and design policy changes in Austin, Texas to better support MFTB’s habitat needs. Adjustments to current site plans in Austin are explored understand the effect the proposed MFTB planning policies could have on current development while exploring the application of the MFTB typology at a site scale. Application of the understanding created through habitat-suitability modelling helps to visualize how current projects in Austin, Texas can better support MFTBs to create an understanding of how these policies may affect the development of urban environments.

Master of Science / Department of Civil Engineering / Robert J. Peterman / Concrete box culvert floor slabs are known to have detrimental effects on river and stream hydraulics. Consequences include an aquatic environment less friendly to the passage of fish and other organisms. This has prompted environmental regulations restricting construction of traditional, four-sided box culvert structures in rivers and streams populated by protected species. The box culvert standard currently used by the Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT) is likely to receive increased scrutiny from federal and state environmental regulators in the near future. Additionally, multiple-cell box culverts present a maintenance challenge, since passing driftwood and debris are frequently caught in the barrels and around cell walls. As more structures reach the end of their design lives, new solutions must be developed to facilitate a more suitable replacement. Since construction can cause significant delays to the traveling public, systems and techniques which accelerate the construction process should also be considered. This thesis documents development of a single-span replacement system for box culverts in the state of Kansas. Solutions were found using either a flab slab or the center span of the KDOT three-span, haunched-slab bridge standard. In both cases, the concrete superstructure is connected monolithically with a set of abutment walls, which sit on piling. The system provides an undisturbed, natural channel bottom, satisfying environmental regulations. Important structural, construction, maintenance, and economic criteria considered during the planning stages of bridge design are discussed. While both superstructural systems were found to perform acceptably, the haunched section was chosen for preliminary design. Rationale for selection of this system is explained. Structural modeling, analysis, and design data are presented to demonstrate viability of the system for spans ranging from 32 to 72 feet. The new system is expected to meet KDOT’s needs for structural, environmental, and hydraulic performance, as well as long-term durability. Another option involving accelerated bridge construction (ABC) practices is discussed.

Master of Arts / Department of Geography / J. M. Shawn Hutchinson / Prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.) are social, ground-dwelling rodents native to North American short- and mixed-grass prairie. They are also the main prey of the Federally-endangered black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes). At the same time, prairie dog colonization is highly opposed by most agricultural landowners. Therefore nonlethal population management techniques must be investigated. This paper presents the results of research on the effectiveness of ungrazed vegetative barriers composed of native plants at limiting prairie dog dispersal away from a ferret reintroduction site in northwest Kansas. Data was collected on barrier quality and condition as well as estimates of population densities of immigrant prairie dogs, dispersing through the vegetative barrier to reoccupy previously extirpated colonies on properties surrounding the ferret reintroduction site. Using strip transects and aboveground visual counts to estimate population densities and visual obstruction ranking techniques to sample barrier condition, statistical analysis of the data indicated that while barrier condition increased over time, it was not effective at limiting prairie dog emigration from the black-footed ferret reintroduction site.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Biology / David A. Haukos / Mottled ducks (Anas fulvigula) are dabbling waterfowl species native to coastal wetlands of the Gulf of Mexico of the United States and Mexico. Although closely related to common waterfowl species such as the mallard (A. platyrhynchos) and American black duck (A. rubripes), the mottled duck exhibits unique behavior, mainly in its life history as a non-migratory species. As such, because of population declines caused by predation, habitat destruction, and environmental contaminants, this species requires specialized conservation concerns and species-specific management to protect population numbers. The goal of this study was to assess ongoing effect of observed lead (Pb) contamination and exposure issues in mottled ducks and their habitats, which I achieved by conducting assessments that will provide managers habitat and organism level metrics to detect and mitigate lead in mottled ducks and their environments. My field study was conducted at the Texas Chenier Plain National Wildlife Refuge Complex (TCPC), which was the area of greatest mottled duck density on the Texas Coast. I first created a body condition index to provide managers a tool to monitor population health, and a proxy for lead exposure and avian health without destructively sampling individuals. I then used presence-only maximum entropy (MaxENT) and multivariate statistical modeling procedures in conjunction with mottled duck movement data to elucidate sets of habitat conditions that were conducive to predicting the occurrence of mottled ducks and environmental lead “hot spots”. MaxENT analyses suggested that lead in the top portion of the soil column is similarly related to all environmental variables considered, may be increasingly available after large-scale environmental disturbances. Lack of variation in coarse-scale habitat use between breeding and non-breeding seasons may further point to a food-based exposure pathway for lead as mottled ducks switch from an invertebrate to plant diet, either as a result of changing age classes or normal adult phenology, during the period of increased lead exposure. Using stable isotope ratio analysis, I then tested environmental samples of soil and vegetation as well as mottled duck blood to determine isotopic signatures that were consistent with particular sources of lead deposition (e.g., lead shot pellets, leaded fossil fuel combustion, industrial effluents). Comparisons suggested a great deal of similarity to lead shot reference values in vegetation and blood samples, especially in blood samples with higher concentrations of lead present. Last, I conducted a formal Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) procedure to quantify the risk to mottled ducks from lead exposure in their current habitat and direct managers towards effective mitigation and habitat management strategies to reduce exposure in the future. One scenario suggested that mottled ducks were at greatest risk from eating an invertebrate-based diet, but lead content values at the TCPC suggest that a plant-based diet may provide a higher lead exposure risk for mottled ducks, depending on true levels of bioavailability in environmental media. Overall, I determined that mottled ducks experience greatest lead exposure risk from lead shot pellets on the TCPC or in nearby habitat, while potentially also experiencing low levels of exposure from several other sources. Additionally, management efforts that focus on plants that do not provide food resources for mottled ducks as a potential environmental sink for lead contamination, such as phytoremediation, may prove effective in reducing the overall lead load from historical activities that likely deposited much of the lead in this ecosystem.

Master of Science / Biology / David A. Haukos / The lesser prairie-chicken (Tympanuchus pallidicinctus) is an endemic North American prairie grouse once widely distributed in the southwestern Great Plains. Recent population declines and continued threats to lesser prairie-chicken populations prompted the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to list the species as “threatened” under the protection of the Endangered Species Act of 1973 in May 2014. The northern extent of the species range in Kansas and Colorado supports 2/3 of the remaining range-wide population of lesser prairie-chickens, but has thus far been relatively understudied. Concern for species viability has created a need to fill current knowledge gaps in lesser prairie-chicken ecology, provide more recent demographic information, and develop appropriate conservation actions. I evaluated female survival, movement, space use, and effects of anthropogenic features during the breeding seasons of 2013 and 2014. I captured and radio-tagged 201 females with satellite GPS (N = 114) and VHF (N = 82) transmitters within the three ecoregions of Kansas and Colorado. Mean daily movement varied by region, year, and breeding season period but the amount of space used was consistent between ecoregions and years. On average, females moved 1352 m ± 12 [SE] per day. Females moved the greatest distances during the lekking period of the breeding season with females moving 2074 m ± 36 per day. Females were most sedentary during the brooding period moving only 780 m ± 14 per day. Mean breeding season home range size was estimated to be 340 ha ± 27. The lekking period had the greatest amount of movement as a result of females visiting leks to find mates, copulate, and search for nest locations. Female’s movements were reduced during the brooding period because of physical limitations of the brood mobility. Variation in movement between ecoregions was most likely a product of fragmentation as females moved 10-30% more in northwest Kansas compared to the study sites, which was characterized by northwest Kansas having the greatest degree of fragmentation. Survival varied by ecoregion with females in northwest Kansas having the lowest probability of surviving the 6-month breeding season compared to other ecoregions. Estimated 6-month breeding season survival during 2013 and 2014 was 0.455 (95% CI = 0.38 – 0.53). Survival was lowest during the nesting period, which claimed 59.5% of all observed mortalities. Survival increased from 2013 to 2014 in northwest Kansas as grassland habitats recovered from extreme drought conditions in 2013. Drought was less severe in south-central Kansas and survival rates remained fairly consistent across years. Avian and mammalian predators caused 45.7% and 34.3% of breeding season mortalities, respectively. Other mortalities were either cause by snakes or were unknown (5.7%, 14.3%). Overhead cover may have been limited from drought conditions causing nesting females to be more visible to avian predators during incubation. When pooled across years and ecoregions, rump-mounted GPS transmitters did not adversely affect female survival when compared to commonly used necklace style VHF transmitter (VHF: 0.48 95% CI = 0.39 – 0.58; GPS: 0.50 95% CI = 0.38 – 0.64). Distance to distribution power lines and lek were significant predictors of female space use within their home range with females behaviorally avoiding distribution power lines and using space closer to leks. Space use decreased with increasing oil well density. Females avoided areas that had well densities of 23 wells/250 ha. Observed female locations were further from anthropogenic features but closer to leks on average than at random. Avoidance behavior of anthropogenic features may result in functional habitat loss and reduce the amount of suitable habitat available; compounding previously fragmented landscapes. Anthropogenic features may limit movement by acting as barriers on the landscape and potentially disrupt population connectivity. Furthermore, habitats selected for nesting and brooding may result in potential ecological traps because of reduce breeding success when impacted by increased occurrence and densities of anthropogenic features. Reduced breeding success can have significant negative impacts on population persistence. Average home range size across all ecoregions indicated that female lesser prairie-chickens need at least 340 ha of habitat to fulfill her life-history requirements during the breeding season. Brooding habitats need to be in close proximity (≤ 750 m) to nesting cover to reduce distance traversed by newly hatched broods. Reducing grazing pressure will ensure that sufficient vertical habitat structure is available during the nesting period and increase female survival; especially in times of drought. Mangers should restrict construction of anthropogenic features near or within suitable lesser prairie-chicken habitat with emphasis on distribution power lines. Well densities should not exceed 1 well/60 acres (11 wells/section) for a >10% probability of use. However, because the affect that density of wells has on demographic rates of lesser prairie-chickens has yet to be determined, a conservative approach where well densities in or adjacent to grassland patches should be minimized as much as possible is best.

Master of Science / Department of Biology / Samantha M. Wisely / Nearly 30% of emerging infectious diseases are caused by vector-borne pathogens with wildlife origins, posing a risk for public health, livestock, and wildlife species of conservation concern. Understanding the spatial patterns of exposure to dipteran vectors and their associated pathogens is critical for epidemiological research to target prevention and control of vector-borne infectious diseases. In recent years, Western Equine encephalitis, St. Louis encephalitis, West Nile Virus encephalitis and avian malaria have not only been a public health concern but also a conservation concern, specifically the conservation of grassland nesting birds. Although the central Great Plains is the most specious region for grassland nesting birds, their role in the enzootic (primary) amplification cycle of infectious diseases may lead to further population depressions, and could potentially result in spill-over events to humans and livestock. The goals of my thesis were 1) to identify the underlying causes of spatio-temporal abundance patterns of mosquito vectors within the grasslands of the eastern Smoky Hills, and 2) to create probabilistic distributions of functional disease vectors, to evaluate disease risk in Greater Prairie-chicken (Tympanuchus cupido, surrogate species for other grassland nesting birds). First, I found that temporal dynamics in mosquito abundances were explained by maximum and minimum temperature indices. Spatial dynamics in mosquito abundances were best explained by environmental variables, such as curvature, TWI (Topographic Wetness Index), distance to woodland and distance to road. Second, the overall predictive power of the ecological niche models of important vector species in the grasslands of the Smoky Hills was better than random predictions, indicating that the most important predictor variables in their distribution were: distance to water, TWI, AASHTO (soil particle size distribution), and mean temperature during the coldest quarter. Furthermore, the spatial analysis indicated that Greater Prairie-chicken nest in areas with a higher probability of vector occurrence than other potentially available habitats within the grasslands. However, I failed to detect a significant difference in the probability of vector occurrence at nest of infected versus uninfected females. Understanding the distribution and abundance patterns of vectors of infectious diseases can provide important insights for wildlife conservation as well as public health management.

Master of Science / Department of Biology / Jack F. Cully, Jr. / Black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) are a species of management and conservation concern. Prairie dogs have lost both habitat and occupied area due to plague, which is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, pest control, and habitat conversion to agricultural land. Our goals were to estimate survival rates and dispersal rates, and to compare methods for estimating abundance of black-tailed prairie dogs for both management and conservation. We trapped black-tailed prairie dogs at four small National Parks from April 2009 through August 2011. Prairie dogs were trapped and marked for two trapping sessions per year in order to estimate seasonal rates of apparent survival. Apparent survival rates were estimated using the package RMark in R to construct models for program MARK. We found estimates to vary according to field site, sex, year, and season (summer or winter). Possible reasons for the differences in survivorship among sites could be presence of disease, quality of forage, predation, or frequency of dispersal. Visual counts were also conducted each trapping session beginning in April of 2010 to estimate abundance. Mark-recapture, mark-resight, and visual counts were compared to determine which method would be the most effective for estimating abundance of prairie dogs. We found mark-resight to produce the most precise estimates of abundance. While it costs more money to conduct a mark-resight estimate than visual counts because of repeated sessions, they produced significantly different results from one another 75% of the time, which was especially apparent on sites that had some form of visual barriers such as tall vegetation and uneven ground. However, if further information is needed in terms of sex ratios, age ratios, or the exact number of prairie dogs, then mark-recapture is the only method that can be used. Land managers need to address the level of accuracy needed, topography, and vegetation height before choosing which sampling method is best for the prairie dog towns in question. Finally, we looked at rates of intercolony and intracolony dispersal by placing 149 VHF collars and 6 GPS collars on prairie dogs at three colonies. Intracolony dispersal was also monitored through visual observation and trapping records over the three years of the study. We found 23 intracolony and eight intercolony dispersal events. Combined, these three studies offer insight not only into monitoring of prairie dog populations but also potential influence by plague both within and among colonies of prairie dogs.

Master of Science / Horticulture, Forestry, and Recreation Resources / Peg McBee / Three wildlife seed mixes were tested, Perfect Plot (BioLogic), Rack Force (Evolved Harvest), and Bird and Buck Whitetail and Gamebird mix (Star Seed). Two methods of research were conducted, (1) a food plot monitoring field study, and (2) a seed germination laboratory test. Food plots were planted in northwest (Jennings) and northeast (Manhattan) Kansas. Single season occupancy models from Program MARK were used to determine plot usage and preference of the seed mixes. Feeding patterns were analyzed from two locations targeting white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Camera trap data were also analyzed for raccoon (Procyon lotor), wild turkey (Melagris gallopavo), and coyote (Canis latrans). During the summer 2014, the Bird and Buck mix retained the greatest amount of desirable vegetation, compared to the Rack Force and Perfect Plot mixes, which exhibited intermediate and relatively poor stand condition, respectively. White-tailed deer were documented at 100% occupancy using all (i.e., 100%) plots of all three mixes in Manhattan and Jennings, Kansas. In Manhattan, a significant increase in feeding events was observed for the months of July (45% of days) and August (50% of days) compared to the month of June (34% of days; p < 0.02). In contrast, deer feeding events in Jennings declined from 67% and 55% of days in June and July, respectively, to only 18% of days in August (p < 0.001). After initially having establishment issues among all three mixes, a laboratory study was initiated comparing the germination rates of each seed mix. Ten 1-gram random samples of each seed mix were tested in complete darkness at a constant 25-30°C for 25 days. When comparing daily germination rates of the seeds in the mixes, peak germination for all mixes (p < 0.0001) occurred on days 5-10 and 12-14. A single expected germination rate of similar plant types (i.e. alfalfa, clover, chicory, grasses) was computed from the seed tag, and then compared to the observed proportion of total seeds sampled that germinated. Bird and Buck recorded the highest germination, 79%, only 0.5% less than the expected overall germination. Perfect Plot and Rack Force recorded germination rates of 49% and 52%, which respectively, were 7% and 11% less than was expected.