The bushmeat phenomenon is spreading throughout the African continent. Wildlife species are slain and conservation areas are under increasing strain. Although studies have been conducted in east, central and western Africa, limited resources regarding this phenomenon exist. This is the first study to be conducted in the southern African region. Initially the study was intended for the whole of South Africa, but due to a lack of co-operation from other provincial governments and the unavailability of data, the study was focussed on conservation areas within KwaZulu-Natal. Data regarding bushmeat occurrences were collected from Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife and the South African Police Services. With the help of a Geographical Information System, the data was overlain with other datasets such as the National Census data and a real-world model was created to establish the correlation and relationship between the bushmeat phenomenon in southern Africa compared to other regions of the continent. The results confirmed a steady increase in the number of reported bushmeat occurrences in KwaZulu-Natal from year to year. The increase in the number of bushmeat occurrences in KwaZulu-Natal can be attributed to an increase in population and poverty as well as the lack of a substantial alternative protein source. Bushmeat are primarily targeted by members of impoverished communities in the surrounding rural areas. Bushmeat are sold at local commercial markets as a subsistence protein source for consumption by the local communities. There is no evidence of a significant international commercial trade in bushmeat in the study area. Poachers travel great distances on foot to hunt inside conservation areas where the targeted animal species are still relatively abundant. Snares are utilised as the most preferred method for poaching in all areas. Hunters also utilise traditional weapons and dogs, but the use of firearms are relatively limited. According to the information derived from the analysis, Nyala and Wildebeest were the most targeted species during poaching activities. The highest percentage of bushmeat occurrences in KwaZulu-Natal take place in Mkhuze- and Ndumo Game Reserves. One of the most troubling results of the study was the police action associated with bushmeat occurrences. In most cases no Police Action was involved and only a limited amount of bushmeat incidents resulted in arrests being made. More effective policing by the South African Police Services are recommended as well as an increase in judiciary participation. More effective documentation of bushmeat occurrences by utilising a Global Positioning System to accurately log the specific locations as well as standardised documentation procedures are recommended for all field officers in all protected areas and regions. This will enable more effective monitoring of the bushmeat phenomenon. It is essential to address the key socio-economic problems as the main cause for the increase in the number of bushmeat occurrences in KwaZulu-Natal. The illicit bushmeat trade in the areas surrounding Mkhuze- and Ndumo Game Reserve can only be brought under control once the quality of life for the surrounding communities improves and more employment opportunities are created. Community conservation and awareness programmes as well as a better understanding of, and an increase in partnerships with surrounding communities will help to alleviate the bushmeat problem. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology / MSc / Unrestricted

Thesis (MScAgric)--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Although kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and impala (Aepyceros melampus) are found in the same geographical area, there is variation in their diets as kudu are predominantly browsers, feeding on tree and shrub leaves, while impala are known as mixed feeders as they graze and browse. Therefore this poses the question whether the diet would influence their meat quality. The objective of this investigation was to evaluate the physical measurements and chemical composition of M. longissimus dorsi, M. biceps femoris, M. semimembranosus, M. semitendinosus and M. supraspinatus for kudu and impala, two southern African antelope species. The effects of age (adult and sub-adult) and gender (male and female) were also determined. The sensory characteristics of the M. longissimus dorsi muscle for sub-adult kudu and impala were investigated. Correlations between the various physical measurements and chemical composition of the meat were verified. Physical measurements and chemical composition of the M. longissimus dorsi muscle were tested for correlations with the sensory ratings of the meat. Dressing percentage of impala (59.88%) (n=28) was higher than that of kudu (57.60%) (n=35). The main effects (species, gender and age) showed no differences for drip loss and cooking loss. However, muscles differed in terms of cooking loss with impala M. semitendinosus having the highest (38.28%) value and kudu M. longissimus dorsi having the lowest value (30.77%). For impala, the highest Warner–Bratzler shear (WBS) values were measured for M. semimembranosus (5.90 kg/1.27cmø), followed by M. biceps femoris, M. longissimus dorsi, and M. semitendinosus with the lowest WBS values measured for M. supraspinatus (3.61 kg/1.27cmø). All impala muscles had lower L* values and appeared darker in colour than kudu muscles, except for M. supraspinatus. Adult animals also had lower L* values than the sub-adult group. Kudu had significantly higher a* and b* values (more red) than impala. Chroma values were higher for kudu, thus appearing brighter in colour. The respective muscles of kudu and impala investigated differed significantly in terms of physical characteristics. However, gender and age did not have an effect on the physical measurements. Moisture content was higher in kudu meat (76.46%) than in impala meat (75.28%). Muscles differed for both moisture and fat content. The highest fat was found in M. supraspinatus followed by M. biceps femoris, M. semitendinosus, M. semimembranosus and M. longissimus dorsi. Protein content did not differ between species (kudu: 21.66%; impala: 22.26%), gender (male: 21.98%; female: 21.95%) and age groups (adult: 21.74%; sub-adult: 22.18%). Kudu M. longissimus dorsi (1.62%) had lower fat content than impala M. longissimus dorsi (2.22%) and female animals had a higher fat content than male animals. Sub-adults (1.20 ± 0.02%) had higher ash content than adults (1.10 ± 0.03%). The M. supraspinatus had the lowest protein and also the highest fat content, with M. semimembranosus having the lowest fat content but the highest value for protein. Myoglobin content did not differ between species, although females had higher (6.58 ± 0.20 mg/g) myoglobin content than males (5.11 ± 0.25 mg/g). Glycolitic muscles had the lowest myoglobin content with the highest values found in M. supraspinatus, an oxidative muscle. An interaction was noted between species and muscle for myoglobin content. Myoglobin content in impala M. longissimus dorsi was higher than that in kudu M. longissimus dorsi; however for all other muscles the myoglobin content was lower in impala. Gender did not affect mineral content. Potassium levels were highest for kudu while phosphorus was more prevalent in impala meat. Adult and sub-adult groups differed in terms of potassium, calcium and zinc content. Potassium and calcium content were higher for subadult animals while zinc content was higher in adult animals. In impala meat, stearic acid (22.67%) was the major fatty acid, followed by palmitic acid (16.66%). In contrast, oleic acid (24.35%) was the most profuse fatty acid in kudu, followed by linoleic acid (22.95%). The SFA’s as a percentage of the total fatty acids differed between impala (51.12%) and kudu meat (34.87%). Kudu meat had a higher concentration of total PUFA (38.88%) than impala (34.06%) meat. The PUFA: SFA ratio for kudu meat (1.22) was more favourable than that for impala meat (0.73). The ratio of n-6 PUFA’s to n-3 PUFA’s for kudu and impala were determined as 2.22 and 3.76 respectively. From the current findings it is evident that kudu and impala meat have advantageous fatty acid profiles and can be a healthy substitute for other red meats. Kudu meat (72.62 ± 1.86 mg/100g) had higher cholesterol than impala meat (55.35 ± 1.84 mg/100g). It is recommended that further studies be done in order to confirm the cholesterol content of kudu meat. Within species, no gender differences for any of the sensory characteristics tested were noted. The impala meat had a more intense game aroma than the kudu meat, while kudu meat was found to be more juicy than impala meat. It can therefore be concluded that the marketing of game meat should be species-specific as there are distinct flavour and aroma differences between kudu and impala meat. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Alhoewel koedoes (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) en rooibokke (Aepyceros melampus) in dieselfde geografiese area voorkom, is daar variasie in hulle diëte. Koedoes is hoofsaaklik blaarvreters, terwyl rooibokke bekend staan as gemengde vreters aangesien hulle grassowel as blaarvreters is. Die vraag ontstaan dus of die verskil in diëet die kwaliteit van hulle vleis sal beϊnvloed. Die doel van hierdie ondersoek was dus om die fisiese metings en chemiese samestelling van die M. longissimus dorsi, M. biceps femoris, M. semimembranosus, M. semitendinosus en M. supraspinatus vir koedoes en rooibokke te bepaal. Die invloed van ouderdom (volwasse en onvolwasse) en geslag (manlik en vroulik) op hierdie eienskappe is ook geëvalueer. Die sensoriese eienskappe van die M. longissimus dorsi van onvolwasse koedoes en rooibokke is ook ondersoek. Korrelasies tussen die fisiese metings en chemiese samestelling van die vleis is ondersoek. Die fisiese metings en chemiese samestelling van die M. longissimus dorsi is getoets vir korrelasies met die resultate van die sintuiglike evaluering van die vleis. Die gemiddelde uitslagpersentasie van rooibokke (59.88%) (n=28) was hoër as die van koedoes (57.60%) (n=35). Daar was geen verskille in drupverlies en kookverlies vir die hoofeffekte (spesie, geslag en ouderdom) nie. Spiere het wel verskil in terme van kookverlies, met die hoogste waarde gemeet vir rooibok M. semitendinosus (38.28%) en die laagste waarde vir koedoe M. longissimus dorsi (30.77%). In rooibokke was die hoogste Warner- Bratzler skeurkrag waardes gemeet vir M. semimembranosus (5.76 kg/1.27cmø), gevolg deur M. biceps femoris, M. longissimus dorsi, en M. semitendinosus met die laagste Warner- Bratzler skeurkrag waardes gemeet vir M. supraspinatus (3.78 kg/1.27cmø). Alle rooibokspiere het laer L* waardes gehad en was donkerder van kleur as koedoespiere, behalwe vir M. supraspinatus. Laer L* waardes is ook verkry vir volwasse diere in vergelyking met onvolwasse diere. Die a* en b* waardes was hoër in koedoe- as in rooibokvleis, m.a.w. koedoevleis het rooier vertoon. Die onderskeie koedoe- en rooibokspiere het betekenisvol verskil in terme van fisiese eienskappe, terwyl geslag en ouderdom geen effek op die fisiese eienskappe gehad het nie. Voginhoud was hoër in koedoe- (75.52%) as in rooibokvleis (74.52%). Verkille tussen spiere is opgemerk vir beide vog- en vetinhoud. M. supraspinatus het die hoogste vetinhoud gehad, gevolg deur M. biceps femoris, M. semitendinosus, M. semimembranosus en M. longissimus dorsi. Geen verskille is opgemerk tussen spesies (koedoe: 21.66%; rooibok: 22.26%), geslagte (manlik: 21.98%; vroulik: 21.95%) en ouderdomme (volwasse: 21.74%; onvolwasse: 22.18%) in terme van proteϊeninhoud nie. Die vetinhoud van koedoe M. longissimus dorsi (1.62%) was laer as dié van rooibok M. longissimus dorsi (2.22%) en die vetinhoud van vroulike diere was hoër as dié van manlike diere. Onvolwasse diere (1.20 ± 0.02%) het ‘n hoër asinhoud as dié van volwasse diere (1.10 ± 0.03%) getoon. In terme van die onderskeie spiere het M. supraspinatus die laagste proteϊen- en die hoogste vetinhoud gehad, terwyl M. semimembranosus die laagste vet- en die hoogste proteϊeninhoud gehad het. Die mioglobieninhoud was nie beϊnvloed deur spesie nie, terwyl vroulike diere ‘n hoër (6.58 ± 0.20 mg/g) mioglobieninhoud as manlike diere (5.11 ± 0.25 mg/g) gehad het. Die M. supraspinatus, ‘n oksidatiewe spier het die hoogste mioglobieninhoud gehad, terwyl glikolitiese spiere die laagste mioglobieninhoud gehad het. ’n Interaksie tussen spesie en spier was opgemerk vir mioglobieninhoud. Rooibok M. longissimus dorsi het ‘n hoër mioglobieninhoud as koedoe M. longissimus dorsi gehad, terwyl die mioglobieninhoud vir al die ander spiere laer was in rooibokke. Mineraalinhoud was nie deur geslag beϊnvloed nie. Kaliumvlakke was hoër in koedoevleis, terwyl fosforvlakke hoër was in rooibokvleis. Kalium- en kalsiuminhoud was hoër in onvolwasse diere terwyl die sinkinhoud hoër was in volwasse diere. Steariensuur (22.67%), gevolg deur palmitiensuur (16.66%) was die mees algemene vetsure in rooibokvleis. In teenstelling hiermee was oleϊensuur (24.35%), gevolg deur linoleϊensuur (22.95%) die mees algemene vetsure in koedoevleis. Die totale versadigde vetsure was laer in koedoevleis (34.87%) in vergelyking met rooibokvleis (51.12%), terwyl die totale polionversadigde vetsure in koedoevleis (38.88%) hoër was as dié van rooibokvleis (34.06%). Die verhouding van n-6 tot n-3 poli-onversadigde vetsure vir koedoe en rooibok was 2.22 en 3.76 onderskeidelik. Hierdie resultate bevestig dat koedoe- en rooibokvleis oor ‘n vetsuurprofiel beskik wat ’n gesonde alternatief bied tot ander rooivleise. Die cholesterolinhoud van koedoevleis (72.62 ± 1.86 mg/100g) was hoër as dié van rooibokvleis (55.35 ± 1.84 mg/100g). Dit word egter aanbeveel dat verdere studies gedoen word om die cholesterolinhoud van koedoevleis te bevestig. Binne spesies was daar geen geslagsverkille vir enige van die sensoriese eienskappe nie. Rooibokvleis het ‘n meer intense wildsvleis aroma as koedoevleis gehad, terwyl koedoevleis meer sappig was as rooibokvleis. Hierdie resultate dui daarop dat die bemarking van wildsvleis spesie-spesifiiek moet wees aangesien daar defnitiewe geur en aroma verskille tussen koedoe- en rooibokvleis is.

Thesis (MScVoedselwet)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The objective of this investigation was to evaluate the effects of age (adult, sub-adult and lamb), gender (male and female) and production region on the morphological characteristics of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis). In addition, the effects of the latter on the physical, chemical and sensory quality of the M. longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle were determined. Where applicable, correlations within the various physical and chemical attributes of the meat were verified in the experiments. The sensory ratings of the meat were correlated with the data on the physical and chemical attributes of the LD muscle, where applicable. The mean live mass of male and female adult springbok differed significantly (p < 0.05) and averaged 31.7 ± 0.70 and 28.3 ± 0.60 kg respectively. Gender had no significant effect on the mean live mass of the sub-adult category. The mean dressing percentage of the males (58.83 ± 0.53%) was noted to be significantly higher than that of the females (55.79 ± 0.50%). The lambs (58.98 ± 1.07%) had the highest dressing percentage of all the age categories. An increase in carcass measurements was noted with an increase in animal age. Gender did not have a significant (p > 0.05) effect on the carcass measurements. Inverse correlations were noted between pH24 and drip loss (r = -0.26, p < 0.01) and cooking loss (r = -0.42, p < 0.0001) of the LD muscle. It was noted that stressed animals had a significantly (p < 0.05) higher ultimate pH24 (6.30 ± 0.07), as observed in the meat originating from the Caledon region and this meat consequently had a significantly (p < 0.05) lower cooking loss (27.18 ± 0.62%) and drip loss (1.79 ± 0.08%). Meat shear force values ranged between 1.67 ± 0.05 and 2.67 ± 0.16 kg. 1.27 cm-1 diameter. Age-related effects on tenderness were found to be minor in comparison to pH24 effects. The females (3.13 ± 0.28%) were noted to have a significantly (p < 0.05) higher fat content than the males (1.35 ± 0.08%). The adult (2.45 ± 0.26%) and sub-adult (2.50 ± 0.28%) animals had a significantly higher fat content in comparison with the lambs (1.32 ± 0.11%). The protein content of the springbok meat originating from the four production regions varied between 18.80 ± 0.35 and 21.16 ± 0.51%. Gender had no significant effect on the protein content, except for the meat originating from Rustfontein Nature Reserve where the females had a significantly higher protein content. The two major amino acids noted for springbok LD muscle were glutamic and aspartic acid. Phosphorous was the predominant mineral, followed by potassium and calcium. Production region had a significant (p < 0.05) effect on both the amino acid and mineral content of the meat. The saturated fatty acid (SFA) content of the LD muscle contributed 38.40 to 42.69% of the total identified fatty acids. The poly-unsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content (36.34 - 40.98%) of the meat was very close to this range, meaning that optimal polyunsaturated to saturated (P:S) ratios (0.96 - 1.18) were present. The effects of age and gender on the fatty acid composition were minor in comparison with regional effects. Warner-Bratzler Shear force (kg. 1.27 cm-1 diameter) values were inversely correlated with the following sensory attributes: tenderness (r = -0.70, p < 0.01), residual tissue (r = -0.68, p < 0.01) and sustained juiciness (r = -0.43, p < 0.05). Decreased acceptance of the meat was noted with an increase in ultimate pH (pH24) from 5.4 to 5.8. As the ultimate pH of the meat increased, the rankings for tenderness (r = -0.46, p < 0.05) and sustained juiciness (r = -0.54, p < 0.05) decreased significantly. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie ondersoek was om die invloed van ouderdom, geslag en produksie area op die morfologiese eienskappe van springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) te evalueer. Die effek van laasgenoemde faktore op die fisiese, chemiese en sensoriese kwaliteit van die M. longissimus dorsi (LD) is ook ondersoek. Korrelasies in die fisiese en chemiese eienskappe van die vleis is bestudeer. Die resultate van die sintuiglike evaluering van die vleis is gekorreleer met die fisiese en chemiese data van die LD spier, indien van toepassing. Die gemiddelde gewig van die manlike (31.7 ± 0.70 kg) en vroulike (28.2 ± 0.60 kg) diere het betekenisvol (p < 0.05) verskil. Geslag het geen betekenisvolle effek op die gemiddelde gewig van die sub-volwasse diere getoon nie. Die gemiddelde uitslag persentasie van die manlike diere (58.83 ± 0.53%) was betekenisvol (p < 0.05) hoër in vergelyking met die vroulike diere (55.79 ± 0.50%). Met ‘n toename in ouderdom is ‘n toename in karkas metings waargeneem. Geslag het geen effek op die karkas metings getoon nie. Negatiewe korrelasies is genoteer tussen die finale pH (pH24) en drupverlies (r = -0.26, p < 0.05) en tussen pH24 en kookverlies (r = -0.42, p < 0.0001) van die LD spier. Gestresde diere van die Caledon area het ‘n betekenisvolle (p < 0.05) hoër pH24 (6.30 ± 0.07) getoon en gevolglik ‘n laer (p < 0.05) kookverlies (27.18 ± 0.62%) en drupverlies (1.79 ± 0.08%). Die skeurkrag waardes van die LD spier het gewissel van 1.67 ± 0.05 tot 2.67 ± 0.16 kg. 1.27 cm-1 diameter. Die effek van ouderdom op taaiheid was klein in vergelyking met die effek van pH24. Die vroulike diere (3.13 ± 0.28%) het ‘n hoër (p < 0.05) vetinhoud as die manlike diere (1.35 ± 0.08%) getoon. Die volwasse (2.45 ± 0.26%) en sub-volwasse (2.50 ± 0.28%) diere se vetinhoud was hoër as die van die lammers (1.32 ± 0.11%). The proteininhoud het gewissel van 18.80 ± 0.35 tot 21.16 ± 0.51%. Geslag het geen effek (p > 0.05) getoon op die proteieninhoud, behalwe vir die vleis van die Rustfontein Natuur Reservaat. Glutamien en aspartien suur was kwantitatief die belangrikste aminosure. Fosfor was die belangrikste mineraal, gevolg deur kalium en kalsium. Produksie area het ‘n betekenisvolle (p < 0.05) effek op die aminosuur en mineraalinhoud getoon. Die versadigde vetsuur (SFA) inhoud het gewissel van 38.40 tot 42.69% van die totale geïdentifiseerde vetsure. Die poli-onversadigde vetsuur (PUFA) inhoud het gewissel van 36.34 tot 40.98% en daarom is optimale poli-onversadigde tot versadigde (P:S) verhoudings (0.96 - 1.18) genoteer. Die effek van ouderdom en geslag op die vetsuursamestelling was minimaal in vergelyking met die effek van produksie-area. Warner-Bratzler skeurkrag (kg. 1.27 cm-1 diameter) waardes was negatief gekorreleer met die volgende sensoriese eienskappe: taaiheid (r = -0.70, p < 0.01), residuweefsel (r = -0.68, p < 0.01) en volgehoue sappigheid (r = -0.43, p < 0.05). Daar is ‘n afname in die aanvaarbaarheid van die vleis waargeneem met ‘n toename in pH24 van 5.4 tot 5.8. Met ‘n toename in pH24, het die taaiheid (r = -0.46, p < 0.05) en volgehoue sappigheid (r = -0.54, p < 0.05) van die vleis afgeneem

Thesis (MSc Consumer Science)--Stellenbosch University, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Please see fulltext for abstract / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Sien asb volteks vir opsomming

Thesis (Msc (Animal Sciences))--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / This research had a dual purpose, firstly to study five muscles (M. biceps femoris, M. longissimus et lumborum, M. rectus femoris, M. semitendinosus and M. supraspinatus) of the blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi) and springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) in terms of the physical and chemical meat quality characteristics, and secondly, to investigate the effects of inorganic salt enhancement on the physical, chemical and sensory meat quality characteristics. The muscles differed significantly for the investigated characteristics, with the exception of a* value, chroma, and ash percentage, which did not differ in either blesbok or springbok. Furthermore, no muscle differences were found in fat percentage in blesbok or protein percentage in springbok meat. Muscle differences were found in the stearic acid (C18:0) composition, the percentage saturated fatty acids (SF) and the polyunsaturated: saturated fatty acid ratio (P:S) of the blesbok. Only linoleic acid (C18:2) as a percentage of the total fatty acids differed significantly amongst the springbok muscles. The shear force values were found to be significantly lower in the enhanced samples (blesbok: 25.16 vs. 43.75 N/1.27cm; and springbok: 23.96 vs. 34.89 N/1.27cm), which means that the enhanced muscles were more tender. The enhanced muscles of both species were found to have lower values for all investigated colour characteristics. Moisture values were found to be higher in all the enhanced muscles (blesbok: 76.53% vs. 74.38%; and springbok: 75.34% vs. 73.37%). The lower fat and protein contents of the enhanced muscles can possibly be ascribed to a diluent effect caused by the water added as part of the inorganic salt injection (blesbok: fat, 1.86% vs. 2.22%, protein, 19.61% vs. 21.67%; and springbok: fat, 1.84% vs. 2.14%, protein, 21.23% vs. 23.26%). Major changes in the mineral contents were expected between the two treatments and in both species the enhanced muscles had higher phosphorus, potassium, sodium and copper values, but lower magnesium, iron and zinc levels than the untreated muscles. Analytical sensory analyses were performed on the M. biceps femoris and M. longissimus et lumborum samples of both species. Tenderness and juiciness were significantly higher in the enhanced muscles. Although salty taste was significantly higher in the enhanced muscles due to the addition of the inorganic salt solution, it remained acceptable. Analytical and consumer sensory analyses were performed on blesbok and springbok M. longissimus et lumborum samples prepared in a stock mixture. The outcome of the analytical sensory analysis was similar to the analytical results reported above. The consumer sensory analysis showed that consumers preferred the enhanced blesbok and springbok muscles, with a significant improvement in consumers’ likeness of enhanced vs. untreated meat. This study provides important insights into the muscle differences of two of the most common game species currently utilised in South African meat production. It confirms that both species can be marketed as a low fat organic red meat source well capable of filling the modern consumer’s nutritional and health needs. It also shows that enhancing game meat with an inorganic salt solution might be a very useful processing tool to use to further game meat acceptability in terms of tenderness and juiciness as game meat is often experienced as being dry and less tender because of its lower fat content and the use of incorrect preparation techniques.

Thesis (MScAgric (Animal Sciences))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The production and especially the export of game meat from Southern African are steadily increasing and with this growth, it is inevitable that more emphasis is being placed on the quality of game meat. Research regarding the effect of different cropping methods on ante-mortem stress, and as a result, on meat quality in wild ungulates, is lacking and thus the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of some of the commonly used cropping methods on the meat quality of red hartebeest, impala, gemsbok and kudu. Antemortem stress was measured using serum cortisol levels (nmol/L), a subjective stress score allocated to each animal as well as the rate and extent of pH decline in the M. longissimus dorsi. Special emphasis was also placed on the meat quality parameters drip loss, cooking loss, colour and Warner-Bratzler shear force (kg/1.27 cm diameter). The effect of day and night cropping on the meat quality of red hartebeest, gemsbok and kudu was investigated. An exponential decay model, y = a + b-ct, was fitted to the pH data of the gemsbok and red hartebeest, and pHu measurements taken at 24 hours post-mortem. Only pHu readings taken at 48 hours post-mortem were analysed in the kudu. Day-cropped kudu had a lower mean pHu (5.40 ± 0.030) than nightcropped kudu (5.48 ± 0.041). No differences in pHu were found for the red hartebeest although night-cropped gemsbok had a higher mean pHu (5.54 ± 0.013) than day-cropped gemsbok (5.49 ± 0.014). None of the constants of the exponential decay model differed for the red hartebeest although day-cropped gemsbok produced a lower constant than night-cropped gemsbok. Mean stress scores and cortisol levels were found to be higher in day-cropped animals for both the gemsbok and kudu while only cortisol levels were higher in die day-cropped red hartebeest. Stress score and cortisol levels were found to be correlated in all three species (red hartebeest: r = 0.51; gemsbok: r = 0.786; kudu: r = 0.823). No treatment differences in drip loss or cooking loss were found for either the red hartebeest or gemsbok, while day-cropped kudu had a higher mean drip loss % (2.76 ± 0.261%) than night-cropped kudu (1.36 ± 0.361%). Night-cropped gemsbok and kudu produced higher mean shear force values (gemsbok = 4.19 ± 0.138; kudu = 4.06 ± 0.237 kg/1.27 cm diameter) than day-cropped animals (gemsbok = 3.57 ± 0.154; kudu = 3.45 ± 0.171 kg/1.27 cm diameter). Colour differences indicated that day-cropped gemsbok and kudu produced lighter meat than night-cropped animals. The results indicate no difference in the effects of day and night cropping in red hartebeest although day-cropped gemsbok and kudu experienced more ante-mortem stress than their night-cropped counterparts. The effect of conventional hunting during the day and night cropping on impala meat was also investigated. No differences were found in pH45 or pHu (taken at 45 minutes and 24 hours post-mortem respectively) although the exponential decay model, y = a + b-ct, fitted to the pH data revealed differences in all the constants (day: a = 5.424 ± 0.039, b = 1.405 ± 0.034, c = -0.385 ± 0.022; night: a = 5.295 ± 0.033, b = 1.556 ± 0.029, c = -0.184 ± 0.019). No differences were found for drip loss, cooking loss or shear force although day-cropped animals produced higher a* and chroma values. The results indicate that, although conventional hunting caused a faster and more severe post-mortem pH decline, both treatments produced meat of similar quality. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die produksie en veral die uitvoer van wildsvleis vanuit Suidelike Afrika is gedurig aan die toeneem en met hierdie groei is dit onvermydelik dat meer klem op die gehalte van wildsvleis gelê word. Daar is ’n tekort aan navorsing oor die uitwerking van verskillende oesmetodes op ante mortem stres en gevolglik ook vleisgehalte van verskillende wildspesies en dus was die doel van dié studie om die uitwerking van sommige van die gewildste oesmetodes op die vleisgehalte van rooihartebees, gemsbok, koedoe en rooibok te ondersoek. Ante mortem stres is gemeet deur die gebruik van serum-kortisolvlakke (nmol/L), ʼn subjektiewe strestelling wat aan elke dier gegee is asook die tempo en vlak van pH-daling in die M. longissimus dorsi. Spesiale klem is gelê op die vleisgehalteparameters drupverlies, kookverlies, kleur en Warner-Bratzlerskeurwaarde (kg/1.27 cm deursnee). Die uitwerking van dag- en nag-oes op die vleisgehalte van rooihartebees, gemsbok en koedoe is ondersoek. ’n Eksponensiële vervalkurwe, y = a + b-ct, is aan die pH-data van die gemsbokke en rooihartebeeste gepas en pHu-metings is op 24 uur ná dood geneem. Net pHu-lesings op 48 uur ná dood in die koedoe is geanaliseer. Koedoes wat in die dag geoes is, het ’n laer pHu (5.40 ± 0.030) gehad as koedoes wat in die nag geoes is (5.48 ± 0.041). Daar was geen verskille in pHu vir die rooihartebeeste nie, alhoewel die gemsbokke wat in die nag geoes is, ’n hoër pHu (5.54 ± 0.013) gehad het as gemsbokke wat in die dag geoes is (5.49 ± 0.014) . Geeneen van die konstantes van die eksponensiële vervalkurwe het verskil in die geval van rooihartebeeste nie terwyl gemsbokke wat in die dag geoes is ʼn hoër konstante a en ʼn laer konstante c getoon het as gemsbokke wat in die nag geoes is. Gemiddelde strestellings en kortisolvlakke was hoër in die geval van gemsbokke en koedoes wat in die dag geoes is terwyl net die kortisolvlakke hoër was in die rooihartebeeste wat in die dag geoes is. Daar is ook bevind dat die strestelling en kortisolvlakke gekorreleer was in al drie spesies (hartebees: r = 0.51; gemsbok: r = 0.786; koedoe: r = 0.823). Geen verskille in drupverlies of kookverlies is aangetref vir die rooihartebeeste of gemsbokke nie, alhoewel koedoes wat in die dag geoes is ʼn hoër gemiddelde drupverlies % (2.76 ± 0.261%) getoon het in vergelyking met koedoes wat in die nag geoes is (1.36 ± 0.361%). Gemsbokke en koedoes wat in die nag geoes is, het ’n hoër gemiddelde skeurwaarde gehad (gemsbokke = 4.19 ± 0.138; koedoes = 4.06 ± 0.237 kg/1.27 cm deursnee) as diere wat in die dag geoes is (gemsbokke = 3.57 ± 0.154; koedoes = 3.45 ± 0.171 kg/1.27 cm deursnee). Kleurverskille het aangedui dat gemsbokke en koedoes wat in die dag geoes is, ligter gekleurde vleis geproduseer het as diere wat in die nag geoes is. Die resultate dui aan dat daar by rooihartebeeste geen verskil is tussen die uitwerking van dag-oes en nag-oes nie, maar dat die dag-oes van gemsbokke en koedoes meer voordoodse stres veroorsaak het as nag-oes. Die uitwerking van konvensionele jag gedurende die dag- en nag-oes op die vleisgehalte van rooibokke is ook ondersoek. Geen verskille is aangetref in pH45 of pHu (geneem op 45 minute en 24 uur ná dood onderskeidelik) nie, alhoewel die eksponensiële vervalkurwe, y = a + b-ct, wat gepas is aan die pH-data verskille getoon het in al die konstantes (dag: a = 5.424 ± 0.039, b = 1.405 ± 0.034, c = -0.385 ± 0.022; nag: a = 5.295 ± 0.033, b = 1.556 ± 0.029, c = -0.184 ± 0.019). Geen verskille is aangetref ten opsigte van drupverlies, kookverlies of skeurkrag nie. Diere volgens die konvensionele maniere geoes het wel hoër a*-en chroma-waardes getoon. Die resultate dui daarop dat, alhoewel konvensionele jag ʼn vinniger en meer ekstreme pH-daling veroorsaak het, albei behandelinge tot dieselfde vleisgehalte gelei het.

D. Tech. Environmental Health, Tshwane University of Technology, 2012. / Implementation of existing meat hygiene legislation can be costly to the game farm owner in terms of slaughter facilities and human resources. This can consequently force farmers and processors to operate outside of the law when delivering game meat to the market. In answer to this a Game Meat Scheme was negotiated between Wildlife Ranching South Africa, represented by the researcher and the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Nevertheless, the Game Meat Scheme only offers a 5 year period of grace for legal compliance for game farmers producing for the local meat market. Concerns of Wildlife Ranching South Africa on the implementation of such and other legal procedures on game farms motivated the comparative research on regulated and non-regulated game carcasses. Dependent and independent variables were researched to compare game carcasses intended for the export market (aspiring to strict requirements), and game carcasses intended for the local market (no control measures). The swabbing sampling technique used by the researcher was verified against the excision method (used by the export market). The results of this study have further led to a proposed innovation in the testing and verification of current legislation culminating in the Game Meat scheme and a new Game Meat Guide that could lead to the development of practical guidelines for the hunting process on the farm.

Thesis (MSc Consumer Science)--Stellenbosch University, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Please see fulltext for abstract / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Sien asb volteks vir opsomming

Thesis (D. Tech. Environmental health) -- Central University of technology, Free State, 2011 / In addition to one national park and six nature reserves, the Free State Province boasts several privately owned game reserves, as well as game farmers and commercial stock farmers who keep game. A survey conducted in 1985 showed that the majority of game could be found in the Xhariep District situated in the southern and south-western parts of the province. Game export abattoirs and processing facilities are situated in provinces other than the Free State, which results not only in an outflow of game carcasses for export purposes, but also a loss of employment opportunities and opportunities for the generation of foreign currency from a district (Xhariep) which, from a socio-economic perspective, is seen as deprived. There are 21 non-export highthroughput red meat abattoirs in the province, posing the question as to whether these could be used for the slaughtering of game. This study aimed firstly to compile guidelines for the wild game meat industry regarding the production of wild game meat for the international market and to assess wild game production and utilisation in the Xhariep District through a comprehensive survey of game farming practices, game numbers and species, as well as the utilisation of game through various consumptive and non-consumptive methods. A further aim was to investigate practices at existing slaughter facilities in order to determine their potential to be adapted into wild game meat export facilities and assess such potential via a standardised protocol. The research commenced with an investigation into processing and export requirements for wild game meat in South Africa through a literature study of all EU legislation, directives and other relevant literature on the subject, and provides comprehensive reference material for entrepreneurs and developers in the wild game meat industry. Methodologies utilised included audits to determine the extent to which abattoirs conform to the structural, operational and documentation meat hygiene requirements followed by the development of a novel assessment matrix for measuring the level of compliance of existing abattoirs and their potential to be developed into European Union (EU) export facilities. The survey of the Xhariep area concluded that a significant potential exists for the expansion of the game industry, as several respondents indicated that they were interested in expanding their game production and that they had land available for this purpose. A further indication was that the game would be highly marketable because it was free ranging and could be regarded as organic due to the absence or controlled use of additives and pesticides that could result in chemical residues in the meat. The establishment of a wild game export facility was favoured by nearly 70% of the respondents. The hygiene evaluation of existing slaughter facilities in the Free State Province resulted in six slaughtering facilities being rated as good or excellent, demonstrating the potential to successfully process game meat for the export market. This was tested by utilising the proposed evaluation matrix, which rated the abattoirs most suited to be adapted into game meat processing facilities for export purposes. The value of this approach lies in the fact that it is not only restricted to local markets, but can be utilised internationally by the abattoir industry, as well as the fact that it is not species specific. It should, however, be applied objectively by knowledgeable operators in the industry. It is concluded that institutions in the Free State Province possess the knowledge and ability to not only produce wild game meat, but also to successfully process this commodity through the optimal utilisation of existing high-throughput red meat abattoirs. By utilising existing management skills and affecting relatively minimal adjustments to existing structures, these resources should be utilised to successfully enter the wild game meat export market which should, in turn contribute towards the prosperity of the Xhariep District.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of this research was to study the current purchasing and marketing behaviour of game meat by supermarkets, butcheries and restaurants in the Western Cape Province, and to investigate perceptions on, purchasing and consumption of game meat by South African consumers and overseas tourists visiting South Africa. Research was done by the survey method with the aid of structured, self-administered questionnaires. Chi-squared frequencies were used to test for significant influences of data. The research showed that South African consumers are poorly educated regarding the nutritional benefits and cooking methods of game meat. Consumers indicated that they would buy game meat if they were better informed on its qualities. Just over 73% of the respondents indicated that they have eaten game meat, whilst 66% of the respondents indicated that they would eat game meat again. South African consumers, however, indicated that they are not willing to pay more for game meat than other meat types. Race and educational level were the only two socio-demographical variables that showed significant differences. White respondents and respondents that were in the "post-High school diploma/degree" educational group, were better informed on game meat and were also more likely to buy game meat than either the black or coloured racial groups. The respondents indicated the leanness of meat as one of the most important quality considerations when they buy meat. This provides an opportunity for game meat marketers to market game meat as a low-fat meat product. This research succeeded in identifying target markets for game meat. Restaurants should market game meat for European tourists, whilst supermarkets and butcheries should focus on marketing game meat to white consumers and consumers with higher educational qualifications, but also target coloured and black consumers. This research confirmed that the South African game meat industry is plagued by numerous misconceptions and contradictions. It is evident that both consumers and marketers of game meat have contradictory beliefs regarding the seasonal availability of game meat. Consumers as well as some of the supermarket, butchery and restaurant meat buyers, are ill-informed regarding the sensory qualities, health benefits and preparation and cooking methods of game meat. Ironically, the research showed that tourists visiting South Africa were the respondent group that were the most knowledgeable regarding the sensory qualities and health benefits of game meat. This research provides a valuable pilot-study into the marketing possibilities of game meat. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie navorsing was om die huidige aankoop en bemarkingsgedrag vir wildsvleis deur supermarkte, slaghuise en restaurante in die Wes-Kaap gebied, en persepsies oor en aankoop van wild deur Suid-Afrikaanse verbruikers en oorsese toeriste wat Suid-Afrika besoek, te ondersoek. Gestruktureerde vraelyste is ontwerp om die navorsing volgens die opname metode uit te voer. Chi-kwadraat frekwensies is gebruik om beduidende invloede te meet. Die navorsing het gewys dat Suid-Afrikaanse verbruikers oningelig is aangaande die gesondheidsvoordele en gaarmaakmetodes van wildsvleis. Verbruikers het aangedui dat hulle wildsvleis meer gereeld sou koop indien hulle beter ingelig word oor wildsvleis se kwaliteite. Die navorsing het bewys dat toeriste wat Suid-Afrika besoek, beter ingelig is oor die sensoriese kwaliteite en gesondheidsvoordele van wildsvleis as Suid-Afrikaners. Net meer as 73% van die Suid-Afrikaanse respondente het aangedui dat hulle al voorheen wildsvleis geëet het, terwyl 66% aangedui het dat hulle weer wildsvleis sal eet. Suid-Afrikaanse verbruikers het egter genoem dat hulle nie bereid is om meer vir wildsvleis te betaal as vir ander vleis nie. Ras en opvoedkundige vlak is die enigste sosio-demografiese veranderlikes wat 'n beduidende invloed gehad het. Blanke respondente en respondente in die "post-hoërskool diploma/graad" opvoedkundige vlak, was beter ingelig oor wildsvleis en ook meer geneig om wildsvleis te koop. Die vetinhoud van vleis was vir meeste respondente 'n belangrike maatstaf by die keuse en aankoop van vleis. Aangesien wildsvleis 'n lae-vet produk is, is daar dus geleentheid vir vleisbemarkers om wildsvleis as 'n lae-vet produk te bemark. Hierdie navorsing het daarin geslaag om teikenmarkte vir wildsvleis te identifiseer. Restaurante moet fokus op oorsese toeriste wat Suid-Afrika besoek, terwyl supermarkte en slaghuise bemarking moet rig op verbruikers met 'n hoër opvoedkundige vlak en blanke verbruikers. Hierdie navorsing het bevestig dat die Suid-Afrikaanse wildbedryf geknel word deur verskeie wanpersepsies en teenstellings. Dit is duidelik dat sowel verbruikers as bemarkers van wildsvleis, teenstellende persepsies het aangaande seisoenale beskikbaarheid van wildsvleis. Hierdie navorsing verskaf 'n waardevolle voorloperstudie vir verdere navorsing oor die bemarkingsmoontlikhede van wildsvleis.