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This thesis reports on a numerical investigation into the three-dimensional flow divergence around a high solidity vertical axis wind turbine. Three-dimensional unsteady Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes simulations of an H-type vertical axis wind turbine were used to examine the impact of turbine aspect ratio and tip speed ratio on the flow divergence. The turbine height was changed to alter the turbine aspect ratio, while keeping the diameter constant, to ensure that the solidity and tip speed ratio values were comparable between the different aspect ratios tested. The power output of the turbine consistently increased with aspect ratio and the optimal tip speed ratio for peak performance was negligibly affected. The flow divergence results showed that larger aspect ratio turbines had significantly more flow divergence with a 1 m/s entrance velocity difference between the smallest and largest cases. These two results where contradictory as a larger aspect ratio turbine was more efficient even though it had a smaller fraction of the upstream flow entering the upwind pass. The reason for this result was that impact of the tip effects, which caused a power reduction near the end of the blades. The distance from the blade tips that experienced a power reduction was constant for turbines of aspect ratio one and greater, resulting in a smaller turbine having a greater fraction of its height effected by the tips. This caused the overall power output for a smaller aspect ratio turbine to be lower even though its centre performance was higher, due to an increased entrance velocity. The change in flow divergence with tip speed ratio was also examined to better understand the driving force behind the divergence. It was found that the turbine power output was not the direct cause of flow divergence. The blade forces, specifically the force generated in the upstream direction had a strong linear correlation with the upstream flow divergence. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

Yes / Reliability is critical to the design, operation, maintenance, and performance assessment and improvement of wind turbines (WTs). This paper systematically reviews publicly available reliability data for both onshore and offshore WTs and investigates the impacts of reliability on the cost of energy. WT failure rates and downtimes, broken down by subassembly, are collated from 18 publicly available databases including over 18 000 WTs, corresponding to over 90 000 turbine‐years. The data are classified based on the types of data collected (failure rate and stop rate) and by onshore and offshore populations. A comprehensive analysis is performed to investigate WT subassembly reliability data variations, identify critical subassemblies, compare onshore and offshore WT reliability, and understand possible sources of uncertainty. Large variations in both failure rates and downtimes are observed, and the skew in failure rate distribution implies that large databases with low failure rates, despite their diverse populations, are less uncertain than more targeted surveys, which are easily skewed by WT type failures. A model is presented to evaluate the levelised cost of energy as a function of WT failure rates and downtimes. A numerical study proves a strong and nonlinear relationship between WT reliability and operation and maintenance expenditure as well as annual energy production. Together with the cost analysis model, the findings can help WT operators identify the optimal degree of reliability improvement to minimise the levelised cost of energy. / UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC). Grant Number: EP/P009743/1

Wind turbine blades experience tremendous stresses while in operation. Failure of a blade can damage other components or other wind turbines. This research focuses on developing an electromagnetic energy harvester for powering structural health monitoring (SHM) equipment inside a turbine blade. The harvester consists of a magnet inside a tube with coils outside the tube. The changing orientation of the blade causes the magnet to slide along the tube, inducing a voltage in the coils which in turn powers the SHM system. This thesis begins with a brief history of electromagnetic energy harvesting and energy harvesters in rotating environments. Next a model of the harvester is developed encompassing the motion of the magnet, the current in the electrical circuit, and the coupling between the mechanical and electrical domains. The nonlinear coupling factor is derived from Faraday's law of induction and from modeling the magnet as a magnetic dipole moment. Three experiments are performed to validate the model: a free fall test to verify the coupling factor expression, a rotating test to study the model with a load resistor circuit, and a capacitor charging test to examine the model with an energy storage circuit. The validated model is then examined under varying tube lengths and positions, varying coil sizes and positions, and variations in other parameters. Finally a sample harvester is presented that can power an SHM system inside a large scale wind turbine blade spinning up to 20 RPM and can produce up to 14.1 mW at 19 RPM. / Master of Science

In recent years, the demand for wind energy has dramatically increased as well as the number and size of commercial wind turbines. These large turbines are loud and can cause annoyance to nearby communities. Therefore, the prediction of large wind turbine noise over long distances is critical. The wind turbine noise prediction is a very complex problem since it has to account for atmospheric conditions (wind and temperature), ground absorption, un-even terrain, turbine wake, and blade deformation. In these large turbines, the blade deflection is significant and it can potentially influence the noise emissions. However, the effects of blade flexibility on turbine noise predictions have not been addressed yet, i.e. all previous research efforts have assumed rigid blades. To address this shortcoming, the present work merges a wind turbine aeroelastic code, FAST (Fatigue, Aerodynamics, Structures, and Turbulence) to a wind turbine noise code, WTNoise, to compute turbine noise accounting for blade aeroelasticity. Using the newly developed simulation tool, the effects flexible blades on wind turbine noise are investigated, as well as the effects of turbine parameters, e.g. wind conditions, rotor size, tilt, yaw, and pre-cone angles. The acoustic results are shown as long term average overall sound power level distribution over the rotor, ground noise map over a large flat terrain, and noise spectrum at selected locations downwind. To this end, two large wind turbines are modeled. The first one is the NREL 5MW turbine that has a rotor diameter of 126 m. The second wind turbine, the Sandia 13.2MW, has a rotor diameter of 206 m. The results show that the wind condition has strong effects on the noise propagation over long distances, primarily in the upwind direction. In general, the turbine parameters have no significant effects on the average noise level. However, the turbine yaw impacts significantly the turbine noise footprint by affecting the noise propagation paths. The rotor size is also a dominating factor in the turbine noise level. Finally, the blade aeroelasticity has minor effects on the turbine noise. In summary, a comprehensive tool for wind turbine noise prediction including blade aeroelasticity was developed and it was used to address its impact on modern large turbine noise emissions. / Master of Science

Wind energy is the world´s fastest-growing renewable energy source. Thus, the amount of people exposed to wind farm noise is increasing. Due to its broadband amplitude modulated characteristic, wind turbine noise (WTN) is more annoying than noise produced by other common community/industrial sources. Aerodynamic noise along the blade span is the dominant noise source of modern large wind turbines. This type of noise propagates through the atmosphere in the proximity of wind farms. However, modelling and simulating WTN propagation over large distances is challenging due to the complexity of atmospheric conditions. Real temperature, wind velocity and relative humidity measurements typically show a characteristic nonlinear behavior. A comprehensive propagation model that addresses this problem while maintaining high accuracy and computational efficiency is necessary. A Hamiltonian Ray tracing (HRT) technique coupled to aerodynamically induced WTN is presented in this work. It incorporates acoustic wave refraction due to spatial speed of sound gradients, a full Doppler Effect formulation resulting from wind velocities in any arbitrary direction, proper acoustic energy dissipation during propagation, and ground reflection. The HRT method averts many of the setbacks presented by other common numerical approaches such as fast field program (FFP), parabolic equation methods (PE), and the standard Eikonal ray tracing (ERT) technique. In addition, it is not bounded to the linearity assumptions made for analytic propagation solutions. A wave phase tracking analysis through inhomogeneous and moving media is performed. Curved ray-paths are numerically computed by solving a non-linear system of coupled first order differential equations. Sound pressure levels through the propagation media are then calculated by using standard ray tubes and performing energy analysis along them. The ray model is validated by comparing a monopole’s ray path results against analytically obtained ones. Sound pressure level predictions are also validated against both FFP and ERT methods. Finally, results for a 5MW modern wind turbine over a flat acoustically soft terrain are provided. / Master of Science / Modelling propagation of noise produced by wind turbines over large distances is a challenging task. Real temperature distributions, flow characteristics around wind turbines, and relative humidity are some of the parameters that affect the behavior of the produced sound in the atmosphere. To this end, a Hamiltonian ray tracing tool that models the propagation of wind turbine noise has been developed and is the main focus of this thesis. This method avoids many of the limitations and inaccurate assumptions presented by other common numerical and analytical approaches. In addition, current commercial noise propagation codes are incapable of fully capturing the physical complexity of the problem. Finally, validation and simulation results for a wind turbine over flat terrain are presented in order to demonstrate the superior accuracy and computational efficiency of the Hamiltonian approach.

Wind power is a fast-growing source of non-polluting, renewable energy with vast potential. However, current wind technology must be improved before the potential of wind power can be fully realized. One of the key components in improving wind turbines is their blades. Blade failure is very costly because blade failure can damage other blades, the wind turbine itself, and possibly other wind turbines. A successful structural health monitoring (SHM) system incorporated into wind turbines could extend blade life and allow for less conservative designs. Impedance-based SHM is a method which has shown promise on a wide variety of structures. The technique utilizes small piezoceramic (PZT) patches attached to a structure as self-sensing actuators to both excite the structure with high-frequency excitations, and monitor any changes in structural mechanical impedance. By monitoring the electrical impedance of the PZT, assessments can be made about the integrity of the mechanical structure. Recent advances in hardware systems with onboard computing, including actuation and sensing, computational algorithms, and wireless telemetry, have improved the accessibility of the impedance method for in-field measurements. The feasibility of implementing impedance-based SHM on wind turbine blades is investigated in this work. Experimentation was performed to determine the capability of the method to detect damage on blades. First, tests were run to detect both indirect and actual forms of damage on a section of an actual wind turbine blade provided by Sandia National Laboratories. Additional tests were run on the same blade section using a high-frequency response function method of SHM for comparison. Finally, based on the results of the initial testing, the impedance method was utilized in an attempt to detect damage during a fatigue test of an experimental wind turbine blade at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory's National Wind Technology Center. / Master of Science

La thèse résume la recherche sur le fonctionnement et l’écoulement autour d’une éolienne caréné à deux rotors. Le placement d’une turbine à l’entrée d’un canal divergent permet d’augmenter le débit massique à travers le rotor. Afin de mieux tirer parti de l’augmentation de la vitesse du vent à l’entrée du diffuseur, il a été décidé d’examiner la possibilité de placer un deuxième rotor, tournant dans le sens opposé, dans cette zone.L'étude menée combinait plusieurs voies de recherche différentes, y compris les méthodes de la mécanique des fluides numérique (CFD) et des études expérimentales. Cela a permis de mieux comprendre la nature de l'écoulement et du fonctionnement d'une éolienne à deux rotors. Des recherches expérimentales ont été menées dans la soufflerie de l’Institut de Turbomachinerie de l’Ecole Polytechnique de Lodz (Pologne). Une série de mesures de systèmes d'éoliennes divers, avec et sans carénage, à un et deux rotors, a été réalisée. Les résultats recueillis ont permis de confirmer que le carénage pouvait augmenter considérablement (même deux fois) l'efficacité du rotor. Cependant, les forces aérodynamiques et la vitesse de rotation augmentent également. Cet inconvénient peut être partiellement résolu en utilisant un deuxième rotor et en répartissant les charges aérodynamiques sur deux étages de turbine.Une partie importante de l'étude était les simulations numériques. Ils ont permis de préciser la nature et les paramètres de l'écoulement et d'estimer leur impact sur les performances de l'éolienne. Deux modèles numériques différents ont été développés:• Modèle rotor complet (anglais : Fully-resolved Rotor Model, FRM): modèle URANS dans ANSYS CFX, basé sur la discrétisation de la géométrie complète du rotor; ce modèle a été utilisé pour l'analyse de l’écoulement,• Modèle hybride CFD-BET (théorie de l’élément de pâle): modèle RANS dans ANSYS Fluent, dans lequel le rotor est représenté par les termes source dans les équations de Navier-Stokes, déterminés par un code interne; ce modèle a été utilisé pour évaluer les performances de différentes configurations d'éoliennes.Au cours de la recherche, une correction empirique interne de la perte d’extrémité de la pâle (anglais : tip loss correction) a été proposée, en tenant compte de l’influence du diffuseur. L’étude réalisée a permis d’observer, entre autres, que le déplacement du rotor en aval vers la sortie du diffuseur pouvait entraîner une réduction de la vitesse du vent à travers le rotor en amont, placé à l’entrée du diffuseur, et une diminution de la puissance globale du système. / Doctoral dissertation summarizes the research on the functioning and flow around a two-stage, shrouded wind turbine. Placing the turbine at the inlet of a diverging channel allows to increase the mass flow rate of the flow through the rotor. To better take advantage of the increase in wind speed at the diffuser inlet, it was decided to examine the possibility of placing a second rotor in this area, with the opposite direction of rotation.The conducted study combined several different research paths, including Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) methods and experimental studies. This allowed for a more refined understanding of the nature of the flow and operation of a wind turbine with two rotors. Experimental research was carried out in the IMP TUL wind tunnel. A series of measurements of various turbine systems with and without shroud, with single- and double-rotor wind turbine were made. The collected results allowed to confirm that the shrouding can significantly (even twice) increase the efficiency of the rotor. However, aerodynamic forces and rotational speed also increase. This disadvantage can be partially addressed by using a second rotor and distributing aerodynamic loads to two turbine stages.An important part of the study were numerical simulations. They allowed to specify in more detail the nature and parameters of the flow and to estimate their impact on the performance of the wind turbine. Two different numerical models were developed:• Fully-resolved Rotor Model: URANS model in ANSYS CFX, based on discretising the entire geometry of the rotor, used for the flow analysis,• Hybrid model CFD-BET (Blade-Element Theory): RANS model in ANSYS Fluent, in which the rotor is represented by source terms in the Navier-Stokes equations, determined by an in-house code; the model was used to evaluate the performance of different wind turbine configurations.In the course of the research an in-house, empirical tip loss correction was proposed, taking into account the influence of the diffuser. The performed study permitted to observe, among others, that moving the rear rotor towards the outlet of the diffuser may result in a reduction of the wind speed through the front rotor, placed at the inlet to the diffuser, and a decrease in the overall system power.

Wind turbines often operate under cold weather conditions where icing may occur. Icing causes the blade sections to stall prematurely reducing the power production at a given wind speed. The unsteady aerodynamic loads associated with icing can accelerate blade structural fatigue and creates safety concerns. In this work, the combined blade element-momentum theory is used to compute the air loads on the baseline rotor blades, prior to icing. At each blade section, a Lagrangian particle trajectory model is used to model the water droplet trajectories and their impact on the blade surface. An extended Messinger model is next used to solve the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy equations in the boundary layer over the surface, and to determine ice accretion rate. Finally, the aerodynamic characteristics of the iced blade sections are estimated using XFOIL, which initiate the next iteration step for the computation of air loads via combined blade element theory. The procedure repeats until a desired exposure time is achieved. The performance degradation is then predicted, based on the aerodynamic characteristics of the final iced blades. The 2-D ice shapes obtained are compared against experimental data at several representative atmospheric conditions with acceptable agreement. The performance of a generic experimental wind turbine rotor exposed to icing climate is simulated to obtain the power loss and identify the critical locations on the blade. The results suggest the outboard of the blade is more prone to ice accumulation causing considerable loss of lift at these sections. Also, the blades operating at a higher pitch are expected to accumulate more ice. The loss in power ranges from 10% to 50% of the rated power for different pitch settings under the same operating conditions.