In an effort to understand the basis for sulfite detoxification in S. cerevisiae, the functions of two genes were analyzed. SSU1, which encodes a plasma membrane protein, was found to be required for efficient sulfite efflux. FZFl-4, a dominant allele of a transcriptional activator of SSUl, was also found to be involved in efficient sulfite efflux. Analysis of an SSUl promoter-lacZ fusion showed that FZFl-4 conferred sulfite resistance through hyperactivation of SSUl. Efflux assays in cells expressing multicopy SSUl or FZFl-4 suggested that Ssulp specifically mediates efflux of the free form of sulfite. Sulfite resistance, mediated by either FZFl-4 or multicopy SSUl, was found to be a useful marker for selecting transformants of industrial and laboratory strains of S. cerevisiae. FZFl-4 was found to be more efficient than multicopy SSUl, and in the case of the laboratory strains, was found to be about half as efficient a selectable marker as URA3. Sulfite transport was studied to clarify the mechanism of sulfite uptake in S. cerevisiae. The kinetics of uptake were saturable, indicating a carrier-mediated process. Uptake was significantly reduced in cells pretreated with carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP) or 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP), both of which dissipate proton gradients. Extracellular alkalization was observed during sulfite uptake. These findings suggest that an anionic form of sulfite, HSO₃, is taken up by carrier-mediated proton symport. As an alternative to costly disposal of spent cherry brine, a sulfite-containing waste stream generated during maraschino cherry processing, brine was tested as a substrate for ethanol production by S. cerevisiae. Initially, the toxic level of sulfite in brine was reduced by raising brine pH to 8.5 with Ca(OH)₂ to precipitate calcium sulfite. Because the alkalization was found to result in a 10-fold reduction of phosphorus, brine was subsequently titrated with phosphoric acid to pH 6.0 prior to inoculation with S. cerevisiae. All strains of S. cerevisiae tested were able to efficiently ferment all lots of Ca(OH)₂-treated and phosphorus-enriched brine. / Graduation date: 2000

Bibliography: leaves 172-187 / xxiv, 187 leaves : ill ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, 1986

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Phenolic acids (principally p-coumaric and ferulic acids), which are generally esterified with tartaric acid, are natural constituents of grape must and wine, and can be released as free acids during the winemaking process by certain cinnamoyl esterase activities. Free phenolic acids can be metabolised into 4-vinyl and 4-ethyl derivatives by several microorganisms present in wine. These volatile phenols contribute to the aroma of the wine. The Bretfanomyces yeasts are well known for their ability to form volatile phenols in wine. However, these species are associated with the more unpleasant and odorous formation of the ethylphenols and the formation of high concentrations of volatile phenols. Other organisms, including some bacterial species, are responsible for the formation of volatile phenols at low concentrations, especially the 4-vinylphenols, and this enhances the organoleptic properties of the wine. The enzymes responsible for the decarboxylation of phenolic acids are called phenolic acid decarboxylases; and several bacteria and fungi have been found to contain the genes encoding these enzymes. The following genes have been characterised: PAD1 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, fdc from Bacillus pumilus, pdc from Lactobacillus plantarum and padc from Bacillus subtilis. PadA from Pediococcus pentosaceus was also identified. S. cerevisiae contains the PAD1 (phenyl acrylic acid decarboxylase) gene, which is steadily transcribed in yeast. The activity of the PAD1-encoded enzyme is low. Phenolic acid decarboxylase from B. subtilis, as well as p-coumaric acid decarboxylase from L. plantarum displays substrate inducible decarboxylating activity with phenolic acids. Both the p-coumaric acid decarboxylase (pdc) and phenolic acid decarboxylase (padc) genes were cloned into PGK1 PT expression cassette. The PGK1 PT expression cassette consisted of the promoter (PGK1 p) and terminator (PGK1 T) sequence of the yeast phosphoglyceratekinase I gene (PGK1). Episomal and yeast integration plasmids were constructed for the PAD1 gene under the control of the PGK1 PT for overexpresion in yeast. Industrial strains with the PAD1 gene disrupted were also made. Overexpression of pcoumaric acid decarboxylase (pdc) and phenolic acid decarboxylase (padc) in S. cerevisiae showed high enzyme activity in laboratory strains. The overexpressed PAD1 gene did not show any higher enzyme activity than the control strain. Both bacterial genes, under the control of the PGK1 PT cassette, were also cloned into a yeast-integrating plasmid, with the SMR1 gene as selective marker. The cloning and transformation of pdc and padc into industrial wine yeast strains can therefore be used to detect the effect of phenolic acid decarboxylase genes in the winemaking process for the possible improvement of wine aroma. Wine was made with all three strains (the bacterial genes overexpressed and PAD1 disrupted). The effect of these genes in wine was determined through GC analysis. The results showed that the bacterial genes could effectively produce higher levels of volatile phenols in the wine. The manipulated strains also produced enzymes capable of producing large amounts of favourable monoterpenes in the wine. This study paves the way for the development of wine yeast starter culture strains for the production of optimal levels of volatile phenols, thereby improving the sensorial quality of wine. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die fenoliese sure (p-kumaarsuur en ferolsuur), wat as natuurlike komponente in mos en wyn voorkom, word gewoonlik as esterverbindings in wynsteensuur gevind. Seker esterase-aktiwiteite kan die fenoliese sure as vrye sure vrystel gedurende die wynmaakproses. Hierdie vrye fenoliese sure kan dan weer deur verskillende mikroorganismes na 4-viniel en 4-etiel derivate omgesit word. Hierdie derivate staan as vlugtige fenole bekend en kan tot die aroma van wyn bydra. Die Brettanomyces giste is baie bekend vir hulle vermoeë om vlugtige fenole in wyn te vorm, maar dit is gewoonlik die formasie van hoë konsentrasies van vlugtige fenole, veral die 4-etiel derivate, wat met af geure geassosieer word. Ander organismes besit egter die vermoeë om vlugtige fenole teen lae konsentrasies te vorm, veral die 4-viniel derivate, wat 'n aanvullende effek op die wyn aroma kan hê. . Die ensieme wat verantwoordelik is vir die dekarboksilasie van fenoliese sure staan as fenolsuurdekarboksilases bekend. Verskeie bakterieë en fungi bevat gene wat vir hiedie ensieme kodeer. Die volgende gene is reeds gekarakteriseer: PAD1 van Saccharomyces cerevisiae, fdc van Bacillus pumilus, pdc van Lactobacillus plantarum en padc van Bacillus subtilis. PadA van Pediococcus pentosaceus is ook reeds geïdentifiseer. S. cerevisiae bevat die PAD1- (fenielakrielsuurdekarboksilase) geen, wat teen 'n vaste tempo in gis getranskribeer word. Die aktiwiteit van hierdie ensiem is egter laag. Fenolsuurdekarboksilase van B. subtilis, sowel as p-kumaarsuurdekarboksilase van L. plantarum, vertoon "n substraat-induseerbare dekarboksilerende aktiwiteit met fenoliese sure. Beide die p-kumaarsuur dekarboksilase en die fenolsuurdekarboksilase gene is in die PGK1PT ekspressie kasset gekloneer. Episomale en gisintegreringsplasmiede is vir die PAD1-geen onder beheer van die PGK1 PT ekspressiekasset gekonstrueer vir die ooruitdrukking van hierdie geen in gis. Die PGK1 PT ekspressiekasset het bestaan uit die promotor- (PGK1 p) en termineerdersekwense (PGK1 T) van die gisfosfogliseraatkinasegeen (PGK1). Industriële gisrasse is ontwikkel waarin die PAD1-geen onderbreek is. Ooruitdrukking van p-kumaarsuurdekarboksilase (Pdc) en fenolsuurdekarboksilase (pade) in S. cerevisiae toon hoë ensiemaktiwiteit in laboratoriumgisrasse. Die ooruitdrukking van die PAD1-geen het nie hoër aktiwiteit as die kontroleras gewys nie. Albei die bakteriële gene, onder die beheer van die PGK1 PT ekspressiekasset, is ook in "n gisintegreringsplasmied met die SMR1-geen as selektiewe merker geplaas. Die klonering en transformasie van pdc en padc in industriële wyngiste kan dus gebruik word vir die bepaling van die effek van fenolsuur dekarboksilases in die wynmaakproses en die moontlike verbetering van wynaroma. Wyn is met al drie die industriële rasse (die ooruitgedrukte bakteriële gene en die ontwrigte PAD1- geen) gemaak. Die effek van die teenwoordigheid van hierdie gene in die wynmaakproses is deur gaschromatografie bepaal. Die resultate het aangedui dat die bakteriële gene op In effektiewe wyse vlugtige fenole in die wyn kan produseer. Sekere monoterpene is ook in In verhoogde mate gedurende hierdie proses gevorm. Hierdie studie baan die weg vir die ontwikkeling van reingisinentingskulture vir die produksie van optimale vlakke van vlugtige fenole om sodoende die sensoriese gehalte van die wyn te verbeter.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: ~-Glucosidases constitute a major group of biologically important enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of glycosidic linkages in ~-glucosides, as well as in glycosides that contain only carbohydrate residues, e.g. cellobiose. These enzymes occur in all living kingdoms and perform a variety of functions in organisms ranging from bacteria to highly evolved mammals. Three different types of ~-glucosidases are found in humans, each with its own function: glucocerebrosidase (a deficiency causes Gaucher disease), lactase-phlorizin hydrolase (a deficiency results in lactose intolerance) and cytosolic ~-glucosidase (responsible for the hydrolysis of ~- glucosides ingested with foods of plant and animal origin). In plants, the functions of ~-glucosidases include pigment metabolism, biomass conversion and cyanogenesis, a function it shares with insect ~-glucosidases. Microbial ~-glucosidases, as part of the cellulase enzyme system that is responsible for the hydrolysis of cellobiose and short-chain oligosaccharides into glucose, playa role in the conversion of cellulosic biomass to liquid fuel. These microbial ~-glucosidases also playa very important role in the enhancement of fruit and wine aromas through the liberation of monoterpenols. Monoterpenols play an invaluable role in the flavor and aroma of grapes and wine, and are present as free, volatile and odorous molecules, as well as flavorless, non-volatile glycosidic complexes. These complexes most often occur as 6-0-~-Dxvlopyranosyl- B-Dcqlucopyranosides, 6-0-~-D-glucopyranosyl-~-D-glucopyranosides, 6-0-a-L-arabinofuranosyl-~-D-glucopyranosides, 6-0-a-L-rhamnopyranosyl-~-Dglucopyranosides, or 6-0-~-D-apiofuranosyl-~-D-glucopyranosides of mainly linalool, geraniol, nerol, a-terpineol and hotrienol. Two mechanisms exist for the release of monoterpenes from glycosidically bound non-volatile precursors: acid hydrolysis and enzymatic hydrolysis. As high temperature acid hydrolysis causes a rearrangement of the monoterpene aglycones, the focus has shifted towards the more efficient enzymatic hydrolysis that does not result in modifications of the intrinsic aromatic character of the wine. The endogenous ~-glucosidases of grapes (Vitis vinifera), as well as of the wine yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, exhibit very low activity towards the glycoside precursors, and thus the focus has increasingly fallen on the addition of exogenous ~-glucosidases to enhance wine flavor. Fungal, bacterial and some yeast ~- glucosidases have been indicated as effective aroma liberators, but these enzymes are not always suitable for use under the harsh conditions that prevail during winemaking (i.e. low pH, low temperatures, and high ethanol and glucose concentrations). The limited enzyme activities of the abovementioned microorganisms have resulted in a search among non-Saccharomyces yeasts for ~- glucosidases that can withstand these conditions. The ~-glucosidase activities of 20 wine-associated non-Saccharomyces yeasts were quantified, characterized and assessed to determine the efficiency with which they could liberate monoterpenols from their terpenyl-glycosides. The Debaryomyces pseudopolymorphus l3-glucosidase from intracellular crude cell extracts exhibited the most suitable combination of properties in terms of functionality at wine pH, resistance to wine-associated inhibitory compounds (glucose, ethanol and sulfur dioxide), high substrate affinity and large aglycone-substrate recognition. This yeast strain was also used, in conjunction with S. cerevisiae VIN13, for the small-scale fermentation of Chardonnay juice. The results indicated that the l3-glucosidase of D. pseudopolymorphus had definite potential as a wine aroma-enhancing enzyme, as the concentrations of free terpenols (nerol, geraniol and citronellol) were significantly increased during fermentation. Future experimental work would include an in-depth study of the kinetic characteristics of the l3-glucosidases (both cytosolic and cell-associated) exhibiting the highest terpenol-liberating activity under winemaking conditions. The next step would then be the cloning and expression of the most efficient l3-glucosidase gene in a commercial wine yeast. Such a recombinant wine yeast would release grapederived aroma compounds from their non-volatile precursors during single culture fermentations, thereby increasing the sensorial quality of wine. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: I3-Glukosidases vorm deel van 'n groot groep biologies belangrike ensieme wat die hidrolise van glikosidiese bindings binne l3-glukosiede,sowel as binne glikosiede wat slegs uit koolhidraatresidue bestaan, soos bv. sellobiose, kataliseer. Hierdie ensieme kom in alle koningkryke van lewende organismes voor en verrig 'n wye verskeidenheid funksies binne organismes wat wissel van bakterieë tot hoogs ontwikkelde soogdiere. Drie verskillende tipes l3-glukosidases,elk met sy eie funksie, kom in mense voor: glukoserebrosidase ('n gebrek hieraan lei tot Gaucher-siekte), laktaseflorizinhidrolase ('n gebrek hieraan gee aanleiding tot laktose-intoleransie) en sitosol l3-glukosidase (verantwoordelik vir die hidrolise van l3-glukosiede wat saam met voedsel van plant en dier oorsprong ingeneem word). Die funksies van 13- glukosidase binne plante sluit in pigmentmetabolisme, biomassa-omsetting en sianogenese, wat ook 'n funksie van insek l3-glukosidases is. Mikrobiese 13- glukosidases, as deel van die sellulase-ensiemsisteem wat verantwoordelik vir die hidrolise van sellobiose en kortketting-oligosakkariede na glukose is, speel 'n rol in die omsetting van sellulosebiomassa na brandstof. Hierdie mikrobiese 13- glukosidases speelook 'n baie belangrike rol in die verbetering van vrugte- en wynaroma deur die vrystelling van monoterpenole. Monoterpenole speel 'n belangrike rol in die geur en aroma van druiwe en wyn, en kom voor as vry, vlugtige en aromatiese molekules, asook geurlose, nie-vlugtige glikosidies-gebonde komplekse. Hierdie komplekse is meestal in die vorm van 6-0- I3-D-xilopiranosiel-I3-D-glukopiranosiede, 6-0-a-L-arabinofuranosiel-I3-D-glukopiranosiede, 6-0-I3-D-glukopiranosiel-I3-D-glukopiranosiede, 6-0-a-L-ramnopiranosiel- I3-D-glukopiranosiede,of 6-0-I3-D-apiofuranosiel-I3-D-glukopiranosiedevan hoofsaaklik linalool, geraniol, nerol, a-terpineol en hotrienol. Monoterpenole kan op een van twee maniere van hul suikermolekules vrygestel word: suurhidrolise of ensimatiese hidrolise. Die hoë temperature waarby suurhidrolise plaasvind veroorsaak 'n herrangskikking van die monoterpeen aglikone, en die fokus het gevolglik verskuif na die meer effektiewe ensimatiese hidrolise wat nie verandering van die intrinsieke aromatiese karakter van die wyn tot gevolg het nie. Die endogene l3-glukosidases van druiwe (Vitis vinifera) en die wyngis Saccharomyces cere visiae , toon baie lae aktiwiteit ten opsigte van die aromatiese voorlopers, en dus word daar toenemend op die toevoeging van eksogene 13- glukosidases tot die wyn gefokus om meer geur vry te stel. Daar is bevind dat 13- glukosidases van fungiese, bakteriële en gis oorsprong effektiewe aromavrystelIers is, maar hierdie ensieme is nie altyd gepas vir gebruik in wyn nie, aangesien dit 'n omgewing is met 'n lae pH, lae temperatuur, en hoë etanol- en glukosekonsentrasies. Die beperkte ensiemaktiwitiet van bogenoemde mikroorganismes het gelei tot 'n soeke onder nie-Saccharomyces giste na l3-glukosidases wat in die wynomgewing kan funksioneer. Die ~-glukosidase-aktiwiteit van twintig wyn geassosieerde nie-Saccharomyces giste is gekwantifiseer en gekarakteriseer om te bepaal tot watter mate dit monoterpenole van hul terpeniel glikosiede kan vrystel. Die intrasellulêre ~- glukosidase teenwoordig in the selekstrak van Debaryomyces pseudopolymorphus, het die belowendste resultate getoon ten opsigte van funksionaliteit by wyn se pH, weerstand teen wyn geassosieerde inhibeerders (glukose, etanol en swaweidioksied), hoë substraataffiniteit en breë aglikoon-substraat herkenning. Hierdie gisras is ook in kombinasie met S. cerevisiae VIN13 gebruik vir die kleinskaalse fermentasie van Chardonnay sap. Die resultate het getoon dat die ~- glukosidase van D. pseudopolymorphus wel potensiaal het om wynaroma te verhoog, aangesien die konsentrasie van ongebonde terpenole (nerol, geraniol en citronellol) aansienlik tydens fermentasie toegeneem het. Toekomstige eksperimentele werk sluit in, onder meer, In in-diepte studie van die kinetiese eienskappe van die ~-glukosidases (beide sitesolies en sel-geassosieerd) wat die meeste terpenole onder wynrnaakkondisies vry stel, asook die klonering en uitdrukking van die enkele ~-glukosidasegeen met die hoogste aktiwiteit, in In kommersiële wyngis. Só In rekombinante wyngis sal die vrystelling van druifgebaseerde aromakomponente van hul nie-vlugtige, geurlose voorlopers tydens enkel-kultuur fermentasies teweeg bring.

Thesis (DSc)--Stellenbosch University, 1961. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: no abstract available / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: geen opsomming

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The wine yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has the ability to utilize several different nitrogenous compounds to fulfill its metabolic requirements. Based upon different growth rates of the yeast in a particular nitrogen source, nitrogen compounds have been classified as either good or poor nitrogen sources. In an environment which contains different quality nitrogen sources, such as grape must, the yeast first utilizes good and then the poor nitrogen sources. This discrimination between good and poor nitrogen sources is referred to as nitrogen catabolite repression (NCR). Examples of good nitrogen sources are ammonia, glutamine and asparagine. Nitrogen sources such as allantoin, y-aminobutyrate (GABA), arginine and proline are poor quality nitrogen sources. Several regulatory proteins, Ure2p, Gln3p, Da180p,Gat1pand Deh1p, mediate NCR in S. cerevisiae. These trans-acting factors regulate transcription of NCR sensitive genes. All these proteins, except Ure2p, bind cis-acting elements in the promoters of genes that are responsible for degradation of poor nitrogen sources. Gln3p is an activator of NCR sensitive genes in the absence of good nitrogen sources. The predominant mechanism by which NCR functions is by using Ure2p to inactivate the activator Gln3p in the presence of a good nitrogen source. Several research groups have studied the Ure2p, mainly due to its prion-like characteristics. The Ure2p has two domains: a prion inducing domain located in the N-terminal region and a NCR regulatory domain located in the C-terminal domain. The aims of this study were (i) to determine the part of the C-terminal domain which is responsible for NCR, (ii) to establish if ure2 deletion mutants produce less ethyl carbamate during wine fermentations and (iii) if NCR functions in industrial yeast strains. Nested deletions of the URE2 gene revealed that the NCR regulatory domain resides in the last ten amino acids of the Ure2p. This was established by Northern blot analysis on the NCR sensitive genes DAL5, CAN1, and GAP1 genes. Ethyl carbamate in wine is produced by spontaneous chemical reaction between urea and ethanol in wine. Urea is produced by S. cerevisiae during the metabolism of arginine. Arginine is degraded to ornithine and urea by arginase, the product of the CAR1 gene. Degradation of urea by S. cerevisiae is accomplished by urea amidolyase, a bi-functional enzyme and product of the DUR1,2 gene which is subject to NCR. This study investigated if a ure2 mutant strain produced less ethyl carbamate during wine fermentations. Wine fermentations were conducted with diploid laboratory strains: a ure2 mutant strain and its isogenic wild type strain. GC/MS analysis of the wine revealed that the ure2 mutant produced less ethyl carbamate but more ethanol than the wild type strain when arginine, di-ammoniumphosphate, asparagine or glutamine were added as nitrogen sources, in combinations and separately. There was no significant difference between the wild type fermentation and the ure2 mutant fermentation when no nitrogen was added. It was found that a combination between the deletion of URE2 and the addition of a good nitrogen source resulted in lower levels of ethyl carbamate. High density micro array analysis done on an industrial strain wine yeast in Chardonnay grape must revealed that the GAP1, CAN1, CAR1 and DUR1,2 genes, responsible for transport and metabolism of arginine and degradation of urea, are NCR sensitive. These data strongly suggest that NCR functions in industrial yeast strains. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die wyngis Saccharomyces cerevisiae kan verskillende stikstofbronne gebruik om in sy stikstofbehoeftes te voldoen. Stikstofbronne word as goeie of swak stikstofbronne geklassifiseer op grond van die groeitempo van die gis op die betrokke stikstofbron. 'n Goeie stikstofbron laat die gis vinniger groei as wat dit op 'n swak stikstofbron sou groei. In omgewings soos druiwemos waar daar 'n verskeidenheid van stikstofbronne teenwoordig is, sal die gis eers die goeie bronne en daarna die swak bronne benut. Stikstofbronne soos ammonium, asparagien en glutamien word geklassifiseer as goeie bronne. Allantoïen, y-amino-butaraat (GABA), prolien en arginien word as swak stikstofbronne geklassifiseer. Die meganisme waarmee S. cerevisiae tussen die stikstofbronne onderskei, staan as stikstof kataboliet onderdrukking (NCR) bekend. Die proteïene wat vir verantwoordelik is NCR naamlik Ure2p, Gln3p, Gat1 p, Dal80p en Deh1 p, bind met die uitsondering van Ure2p, almal aan cis-werkende elemente in die promoters van NCR-sensitiewe gene. Die trans-werkende faktore reguleer die transkripsie van NCR-sensitiewe gene. NCR werk hoofsaaklik deur die inhibering van Gln3p deur Ure2p in die teenwoordigheid van 'n goeie stikstofbron. Die oorgrote meerderheid NCR-sensitiewe gene word deur Gln3p in die afwesigheid van 'n goeie stikstofbron geaktiveer. Heelwat navorsing is op die prionvormings vermoë van Ure2p gedoen. Ure2p het twee domeine: 'n N-terminale domein wat vir prionvorming verantwoordelik is en die C-terminale domein waar die NCR funksie van Ure2p gesetel is. Die doel van die studie was (i) om te bepaal waar in die C-terminale domein van Ure2p die NCR regulering geleë is, (ii) of ure2 delesie mutante minder etielkarbamaat tydens wynfermentasies produseer en (iii) of NCR in industriële gisrasse funksioneel is. Delesie analises van URE2 het getoon dat die NCR regulerings domein in die laaste tien aminosure gesetel is. Dit is vas gestel m.b.v. noordlike klad tegniek analises op die OALS, CAN1 en GAP1 gene.Etielkarbamaat in wyn word deur die spontane chemiese reaksie tussen ureum en alkohol geproduseer. Ureum word gedurende die metabolisme van arginien in S. cerevisiae geproduseer. Arginien word deur arginase, produk van die CAR1 geen, na ornitien en ureum afgebreek. Die bi-funksionele ureum amidoliase, gekodeer deur die DUR1,2 geen, breek ureum na CO2 en NH/ af. As gevolg van die NCRsensitiwiteit van dié gene is ondersoek ingestel na In ure2 mutant se vermoë om minder etielkarbamaat tydens wynfermentasies te produseer. Chardonnay druiwemos is met In diploiede laboratorium ras en die isogeniese ure2 mutant gefermenteer. GC/MS analise op die wyn het getoon dat die ure2 mutant minder etielkarbamaat, maar meer alkohol in vergelyking met die wilde tipe gis produseer, as arginien, di-ammoniumfosfaat, asparagien en glutamien, afsonderlik of gesamentlik byvoeg is. Daar was egter nie In merkwaardige verskil tussen die fermentasies waar geen stikstof bygevoeg is nie. Dit dui daarop dat In kombinasie van In URE2 delesie en die byvoeging van stikstof etielkarbamaat vlakke verlaag. Mikro-skyfie analise van In industriële gis in Chardonnay mos het getoon dat die GAP1, CAN1, CAR1 en DUR1,2 gene wat verantwoordelik is vir die transport en metabolisme van arginien en degradasie van ureum, wel NCR-sensitief is. Dit dui daarop dat NCRwel in industriële gisrasse funksioneel is.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Lactic acid bacteria are present in many foods and beverages and are used as starter cultures in the production of a variety of fermented products. Many of these bacteria produce ribosomally synthesized antimicrobial peptides (bacteriocins), which inhibit the growth of bacteria genetically closely related to the producer cell. Since many of these target bacteria include foodbome pathogens such as Bacillus spp., Clostridium spp., Listeria spp., and Staphylococcus spp., the practical importance of these peptides as food preservatives has been well documented and, in the case of nisin and pediocin PA-I, commercially explored. The increased demand from health conscious consumers for foods with no chemical preservatives is putting renewed pressure on the producer to supply a "clean and green" product, but with the same or even an extended shelf life. Various research groups are screening lactic acid bacteria for production of novel broad-spectrum antimicrobial peptides or are exploring the possibilities of altering known bacteriocins to inhibit Gram-negative bacteria, yeasts and molds. Pediocin PD-I, produced by Pediococcus damnosus NCFB 1832, belongs to the class Ila bacteriocins, i.e. heat-stable Listeria-active peptides, containing the YGNGV -consensus sequence in the N-terminal region. Little is known about the production and mode of activity of pediocin PD-I. In this study, production of pediocin PD-I was significantly increased by optimizing the growth medium, De Man Rogosa and Sharpe (MRS) broth. Addition of bacteriological peptone (1.7%, w/v), manganous sulphate (0.014%, w/v) and Tween 80 (3%, v/v), and lowering of the pH during fermentation stimulated pediocin PD-I production and the level of organic acids produced. Maximum levels of bacteriocin activity were recorded at an initial pH of 6.7 in the latter medium. Under these conditions the specific bacteriocin activity increased by a factor of approximately six after 55 h of fermentation. The effect of pediocin PD-I, plantaricin 423, produced by Lactobacillus plantarum 423, and commercial grade nisin (Aplin and Barrett Ltd., Trowbrige, Wilts, England) was tested against planktonic cells of Oenococcus oeni and a biofilm of the cells established on stainless steel surfaces identical to those used in wineries. After 5 h of treatment with 3000 AU (arbitrary units )/ml of each bacteriocin, all planktonic cells of 0. oeni in a modified Chardonnay must medium were killed. All viable cells in the biofilm were killed after only 1 h in the presence of 3000 AU/ml of anyone of the bacteriocins. In addition, pediocin PD-I, plantaricin 423 and nisin removed the biofilms from the surfaces and reduced the biomass either completely, as in the case of pediocin PD-I, or by 58% and 50% as in the case of plantaricin 423 and nisin, respectively. These same results were recorded after 5 h of treatment with 3000 AU/ml in a modified Chardonnay must medium. To our knowledge this is the first report of controlling biofilm formation of malolactic bacteria on stainless steel surfaces with natural antimicrobial peptides. This implies that, apart from being very effective in controlling the cell numbers of free-living cells of 0. oeni, the three bacteriocins, especially pediocin PD-I, could also be used as natural sanitizers. The fact that the production and activity levels ofpediocin PD-I could be increased without genetically modifying the producer strain is an added advantage. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Melksuurbakterieë is teenwoordig in verskeie soorte voedsel- en drankprodukte en word as suurselkulture in die produksie van 'n verskeidenheid gefermenteerde produkte gebruik. Baie van hierdie bakterieë produseer ribosomaal-vervaardigde antimikrobiese peptiede (bakteriosiene) wat die groei van ander bakterieë, geneties naverwant aan die produserende organisme, inhibeer. Omdat baie van hierdie bakterieë voedselpatogene soos Bacillus spp., Clostridium spp., Listeria spp. en Staphylococcus spp. insluit, is die praktiese belang van hierdie peptiede reeds deeglik ondersoek en word, soos in die geval van nisien en pediosien PA-I, kommersieel gebruik. Die toenemende behoefte van die verbruiker na voedselprodukte met geen chemiese preserveermiddels plaas nuwe druk op die vervaardiger om veilige voedselprodukte te produseer, maar met dieselfde of selfs langer rakleeftyd. Verskeie navorsingsgroepe bestudeer melksuurbakterieë vir die produksie van unieke antimikrobiese peptiede met 'n wye spektrum van inhibisie en ondersoek ook die moontlikhede om hierdie bakteriosiene geneties te manipuleer ten einde Gram-negatiewe bakterieë, giste en swamme te inhibeer. Pediosien PD-l, geproduseer deur Pediococcus damnosus NCFB 1832, word as 'n klass na bakteriosien geklassifiseer. Hierdie groep sluit in die hitte-stabiele Listeria-aktiewe peptiede, met 'n YGNGV-konsensus volgorde in die N-terminale deel van die peptied. Min is egter bekend oor die meganisme van werking van hierdie bakteriosiene. In hierdie studie is die produksie van pediosien PD-l betekenisvol verhoog met die optimalisering van die vloeibare groeimedium De Man Rogosa en Sharpe (MRS). Die toevoeging van bakteriologiese peptone (1.7%, miv), mangaan sulfaat (0.014%, miv) en Tween 80 (3.0%, v/v) en 'n afname in die pH gedurende groei het pediosien PD-l-poduksie gestimuleer en sodoende ook die vlak van organiese sure wat geproduseer is. Maksimum vlakke van bakteriosien-aktiwiteit is in hierdie medium met 'n aanvangs-pH van 6.7 waargeneem. Onder hierdie omstandighede, en na 55 uur van fermentasie, het die spesifieke aktiwiteit van die bakteriosien met 'n faktor van ongeveer ses verhoog. Die effek van pediosien PD-l, plantarisien 423, geproduseer deur Lactobacillus plantarum 423, en 'n kommersiële graad nisien (Aplin and Barrett Ltd., Trowbride, Wilts, Engeland) is teen die planktoniese selle van Oenococcus oeni en 'n biofilm van hierdie selle, gevestig op 'n vlekvrye staaloppervlak identies aan wat in wynkelders gebruik word, getoets. Na 5 ure van behandeling met 3000 AB (arbitrêre eenhede)/ml van elke bakteriosien, is al die planktoniese selle van O. oeni in 'n gemodifiseerde Chardonnay mos-medium vernietig. Alle lewensvatbare selle in die biofilm is ook na slegs 1 uur in die teenwoordigheid van 3000 AE/ml van enige een van hierdie bakteriosiene vernietig. Verdermeer het pediosien PD-I, plantarisien 423 en nisien ook die biofilm op die vlekvrye staal-oppervlak verwyder. In die geval van pediosien PD-I is 'n totale afname van die biomassa-oppervlak waargeneem, terwyl plantarisien 423 en nisien 58% en 50% van die totale biomassa verwyder het. Hierdie resultate is na 5 ure van behandeling (3000 AE/ml) in 'n gemodifiseerde Chardonnay mos-medium waargeneem. Sover ons kennis strek is hierdie die eerste verslag rakende die gebruik van natuurlike antimikrobiese peptiede om biofilm-vorming deur appel-melksuurbakterieë op vlekvrye staal oppervlaktes te beheer. Dit impliseer dat bakteriosiene, spesifiek pediosien PD-I, benewens die beheer van planktoniese selle van appel-melksuurbakterieë, ook as natuurlike oppervlak-reinigers gebruik kan word. Die feit dat die produksie en aktiwiteitsvlakke van pediosien PD-I verhoog kon word sonder om die organisme geneties te modifiseer is 'n verdere voordeel.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2003. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The winemaking process involves a complex microbial flora where the interaction of yeasts, lactic acid bacteria and acetic acid bacteria play an important role in the quality and wholesomeness of the final product. Yeasts are primarily responsible for alcoholic fermentation. Malolactic fermentation follows alcoholic fermentation and is conducted by lactic acid bacteria. These bacteria are important in winemaking and can have a positive or negative effect on the wine quality. Biogenic amines are one of the compounds produced by lactic acid bacteria, which affect the hygienic quality and wholesomeness of the wine negatively and directly pose a health risk to the consumer. The demand of consumers for higher quality and healthier foods has led to renewed interest in studies on biogenic amines. Biogenic amines occur in a wide variety of food products, such as cheese, dried sausage, sauerkraut, fishery products, chocolates, wine and beer. This thesis focussed on the presence of biogenic amines in wine. The first objective of the study was to determine the ability of lactic acid bacteria isolated from South African wine to produce biogenic amines, using a decarboxylase screening plate method. The potential to produce the biogenic amines histamine, tyramine, putrescine and cadaverine was investigated. The results obtained showed that Lactobacillus species (Lactobacillus brevis and Lactobacillus hilgardil) might be the lactic acid bacteria responsible for tyramine and putrescine production and that it can contribute significantly to the overall biogenic amine content in wines. The results also suggest that amine production is strain dependent and not species specific. None of the lactic acid bacteria tested had the ability to produce histamine or cadaverine. It is important to remember that the ability of the lactic acid bacteria to produce biogenic amines has only been investigated in synthetic media and that it does not necessarily imply similar behaviour in wine. Wine represents a complex environment with a wide number of factors influencing microbial growth and decarboxylase activity and, thus, further investigation is necessary to determine if these amine-producing bacteria behave similarly in wine conditions. In addition, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification method was used for the identification of the tyrosine decarboxylase (TOe) gene in some of the tyramine-producing lactic acid bacteria. This was followed by the sequencing of the amplified products, which are partial TOe gene sequences, of two L. brevis strains and of a L. hilgardii strain. Only one tdc gene sequence has been described for bacteria (Enterococcus faecalis), while a partial TOC gene sequence from L. brevis lOEB 9809 was described. An amino acid sequence alignment of the three TOe gene fragments, obtained in this study, with the known TOe gene fragment of L. brevis lOEB 9809 and the tdc gene of E. faecalis showed a high degree of relatedness and conserved regions. To meet consumer demands, procedures are necessary to prevent the formation of amines in food products. One way of preventing the formation of biogenic amines is to relate amine production with certain lactic acid bacteria species involved in the winemaking process. Another possible way would be to develop a rapid detection method for bacteria carrying amino acid decarboxylase genes. The results of this study provide knowledge about which lactic acid bacteria in the winemaking process could contribute to the production of biogenic amines and the sequencing of additional partial TOe genes could possibly assist in the development of a rapid detection method for tyramine-producing lactic acid bacteria in food products. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die wynmaakproses behels 'n komplekse mikrobiese flora waar die interaksie van giste, melksuurbakterieë en asynsuurbakterieë 'n belangrike rol speel in die kwaliteit en heilsaamheid van die finale produk. Giste is primêr verantwoordelik vir alkoholiese fermentasie. Appelmelksuurgisting volg op alkoholiese fermentasie en word deur melksuurbakterieë uitgevoer. Hierdie bakterieë is belangrik in die maak van wyn en kan 'n positiewe of negatiewe uitwerking op die kwaliteit van wyn hê. Biogeniese amiene is een van die komponente wat deur melksuurbakterieë geproduseer kan word en wat die higiëniese kwaliteit en heilsaamheid van die wyn benadeel. Dit hou ook 'n gesondheidsrisiko vir die verbruiker in. Die vereiste van verbruikers vir hoër kwaliteit en gesonder voedselprodukte het nuwe belangstelling in studies op biogeniese amiene ontlok. Biogeniese amiene kom in 'n wye verskeidenheid voedselprodukte voor, soos kaas, droëwors, suurkool, vis, sjokolade, wyn en bier. Hierdie tesis fokus op die teenwoordigheid van biogeniese amiene in wyn. Die eerste doelwit van die studie was om melksuurbakterieë, wat uit Suid- Afrikaanse wyn geïsoleer is, se vermoë te bepaal om biogeniese amiene op dekarboksilase-agarplate te produseer. Die potensiaal om die biogeniese amiene histamien, tiramien, putresien en kadawerien te produseer, is bestudeer. Die resultate wat verkry is, toon dat Lactobacillus-spesies (Lactobacillus brevis en Lactobacillus hilgardit) vir tiramien- en putresienproduksie verantwoordelik is en dat hulle 'n belangrike bydrae kan lewer tot die totale biogeniese amienkonsentrasie in wyn. Die resultate dui ook daarop dat die produksie van amiene afhanklik is van die ras, en nié 'n spesifieke spesie nie. Geen melksuurbakterieë wat getoets is, het die vermoë getoon om histamien of kadawerien te produseer nie. Dit is belangrik om in ag te neem dat die vermoë van die melksuurbakterieë om amiene te produseer slegs in sintetiese media bestudeer is en dat dit nie noodwendig dieselfde gedrag in wyn sal toon nie. Wyn is 'n komplekse omgewing met 'n wye verskeidenheid faktore wat die mikrobiese groei en dekarboksilase-aktiwiteit kan beïnvloed, daarom is verdere studie nodig om vas te stelof hierdie amien-produserende bakterieë dieselfde gedrag in wyn sal toon. Die polimerase-kettingreaksie (PKR) amplifikasie-metode is vir die identifikasie van die tirosiendekarboksilase-geen (TDK) in sommige van die tiramienproduserende melksuurbakterieë gebruik. Dit is gevolg deur die volgordebepaling van die geamplifiseerde produkte, wat gedeeltelike TDK-geenvolgordes is, van twee L. brevis- en van een L. hilgardii-ras. Slegs een tdk-geenvolgorde is al voorheen vir bakterieë beskryf, nl. Enterococcus faecalis, asook 'n gedeeltelike TDK-geenvolgorde vir L. brevis lOEB 9809. 'n Vergelyking van die aminosuurvolgordes van die drie TDK-geenfragmente wat in die studie verkry is, het 'n hoë graad van ooreenkoms en gekonserveerde areas met die bekende TDK-geenfragment van L. brevis lOEB 9809 en die tdk-geen van E. faecalis getoon. Om verbruikers se behoeftes te bevredig, is dit noodsaaklik dat die vorming van amiene in voedselprodukte voorkom word. Een manier van voorkoming is om amienproduksie aan sekere melksuurbakterieë wat in die wynmaakproses betrokke is, te koppel. 'n Ander manier sal wees om 'n vinnige metode te ontwikkel vir die opsporing van bakterieë wat aminosuurdekarboksilase-gene dra. Die resultate van die studie verskaf kennis van watter melksuurbakterieë in die wynmaakproses tot die produksie van biogeniese amiene kan bydra. Die volgordebepaling van addisionele gedeeltelike TDK-gene kan moontlik tot die ontwikkeling van 'n vinnige opsporingsmetode van tiramien-produserende melksuurbakterieë in voedselprodukte bydra.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 1964. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: no abstract available / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: geen opsomming

Thesis (PhD(Agric) (Viticulture and Oenology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / The winemaking process involves different complex chemical and biochemical reactions, which include those of oxygen (O2). Oxygen can come into contact with the wine through various winemaking procedures and can be used by the winemaker to enhance the quality of red wine. In wine, the main substrates for oxidation are phenolic molecules, which form quinones. These can influence the sensory characteristics of the wine. O2 can be used in fresh must to remove oxidisable phenolic molecules through a process called hyper-oxidation and can also be added to fermenting must to enhance the fermentation performance of yeast. Controlled O2 additions during ageing can lead to the wine’s colour being increased and the astringency of the wine decreased. This is due to the formation of acetaldehyde from the oxidation of ethanol, which induces the polymerisation of tannin and anthocyanin molecules. The addition of too much O2 to wine can, however, lead to unwanted over-oxidation, with certain off-odours being formed. It can also enhance the growth of unwanted spoilage microorganisms, such as Brettanomyces and acetic acid bacteria. Although research on O2 in wine was started many years ago, many questions still remain. These include the general effect of O2 on the sensory and phenolic profile of red wine especially and the microbiology of wine during ageing. An effective way of measuring oxidation, especially in red wine must also be developed. In the first part of this study, the effects of O2 and sulfur dioxide (SO2) additions on a strain of Brettanomyces bruxellensis (also known as Dekkera bruxellensis) and Acetobacter pasteurianus were investigated. Epifluorescence microscopy and plating revealed that the A. pasteurianus strain went into a viable but non-culturable state in the wine after prolonged storage under relative anaerobic conditions. This state, however, could be negated with successive increases in culturability by the addition of O2, as would happen during the transfer of wine when air is introduced. The A. pasteurianus strain was also relatively resistant to SO2, but the B. bruxellensis strain was more sensitive to SO2. A short exposure time to molecular SO2 drastically decreased the culturability of the B. bruxellensis strain, but bound SO2 had no effect on the culturability or viability of either of the two types of microorganisms. Oxygen addition to the B. bruxellensis strain also led to a drastic increase in viability and culturability. It is thus clear that SO2 and O2 management in the cellar is of critical importance for the winemaker to produce wines that have not been spoiled by Brettanomyces or acetic acid bacteria. This study should contribute to the understanding of the factors responsible for the growth and survival of Brettanomyces and acetic acid bacteria in wine, but it should be kept in mind that only one strain of each microorganism was used. This should be expanded in future to include more strains that occur in wine. The second part of this study investigated the effect of micro-oxygenation on four different South African red wines. It was found that the micro-oxygenation led to an increase in the colour density and SO2 resistant pigments of the two wines in which micro-oxygenation was started just after the completion of malolactic fermentation. In one of these wines, a tasting panel preferred the micro-oxygenation treated wines to the control. In the other two red wines, in which the micro-oxygenation was started seven months after the completion of malolactic fermentation, very little colour increase was observed. One of these two wines was also matured in an oak barrel, where the change in phenolic composition was on par with the treated wines. A prolonged period of micro-oxygenation, however, led to this wine obtaining an oxidised, over-aged character. Micro-oxygenation and maturation in an oak barrel also enhanced the survival of acetic acid bacteria and Brettanomyces in this wine. Micro-oxygenation can hence be used by the wine producer on young red wines to enhance the quality of the wine, but should be applied with care in older red wines. Future research into micro-oxygenation should focus on whether it can simulate an oak barrel. More research into the effect of micro-oxygenation on the sensory profile of the wine is needed. As mentioned, the addition of O2 can lead to oxidative degradation of wine. The brown colour in wine is often used as an indication of oxidation, but oxidative aromas can be perceived before a drastic increase in the brown colour has been observed in red wine. The third part of this study was to assess the possible use of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) to measure the progression of oxidation in Pinotage red wines. Three wines were used in this study and clear separation between the control and aerated wines was observed by using Principle Component Analysis (PCA). Sensory analysis of these wines confirmed this observation, with a reduction especially in berry fruit and coffee characters and an increase first in potato skin and then acetaldehyde aroma characters as the oxidation progressed. PCA analysis also revealed that in certain wines the visible spectrum of light did not indicate the progression of oxidation as sensitively as with the use of FTIR. This also correlated with the inability of the panel to observe a drastic colour change. FTIR should be further investigated as a possible means of monitoring oxidation in wine and this study should be expanded to wines made from other cultivars as well.