University of Macau / Faculty of Science and Technology / Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

In this thesis, we propose a suite of Evolutionary Algorithms (EA)-based protocols to solve the problems of clustering and routing in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). At the beginning, the problem of the Cluster Heads (CHs) selection in WSNs is formulated as a single-objective optimization problem. A centralized weighted-sum multi-objective optimization protocol is proposed to find the optimal set of CHs. The proposed protocol finds a predetermined number of CHs in such way that they form one-hop clusters. The goal of the proposed protocol is to enhance the network's energy efficiency, data delivery reliability and the protocol's scalability. The formulated problem has been solved using three evolutionary approaches: Genetic Algorithms (GA), Differential Evolution (DE) and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and we assessed each of their performance. Then, a PSO-based hierarchical clustering protocol that forms two-hop clusters is proposed to investigate the effect of the number of CHs on network's energy efficiency. This protocol enhances the WSN's energy efficiency by setting an upper bound on the number of CHs and trying to minimize the number of CHs compared to that upper bound. It also maximizes the protocol's scalability by using two-hop communication between the sensor nodes and their respective CHs. Then, a centralized weighted-sum PSO-based protocol is proposed for finding the optimal inter-cluster routing tree that connects the CHs to the Base Station (BS). This protocol is appropriate when the CHs are predetermined in advance. The proposed protocol uses a particle encoding scheme and defines an objective function to find the optimal routing tree. The objective function is used to build the trade-off between the energy-efficiency and data delivery reliability of the constructed tree. Finally, a centralized multi-objective Pareto-optimization approach is adapted to find the optimal network configuration that includes both the optimal set of CHs and the optimal routing tree. A new individual encoding scheme that represents a joint solution for both the clustering and routing problems in WSNs is proposed. The proposed protocol uses a variable number of CHs, and its objective is to assign each network node to its respective CH and each CH to its respective next hop. The joint problem of clustering and routing in WSNs is formulated as a multi-objective minimization problem with a variable number of CHs, aiming at determining an energy efficient, reliable ( in terms of data delivery) and scalable clustering and routing scheme. The formulated problem has been solved using two state-of-the-art Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithms (MOEA), and their performance has been compared. The proposed protocols were developed under realistic network settings. No assumptions were made about the nodes' location awareness or transmission range capabilities. The proposed protocols were tested using a realistic energy consumption model that is based on the characteristics of the Chipcon CC2420 radio transceiver data sheet. Extensive simulations on 50 homogeneous and heterogeneous WSN models were evaluated and compared against well-known cluster-based sensor network protocols.

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have been applied to a wide range of application areas, including battle fields, transportation systems, and hospitals. The security issues in WSNs are still hot research topics. The constrained capabilities of sensors and the environments in which sensors are deployed, such as hostile and non-reachable areas, make the security more complicated. This dissertation describes the development and testing of a novel two-phase security mechanism for hierarchical WSNs that is capable of defending both outside and inside attacks. For the outside attacks, the attackers are usually malicious intruders that entered the network. The computation and communication capabilities of the sensors restrict them from directly defending the harmful intruders by performing traditionally encryption, authentication, or other cryptographic operations. However, the sensors can assist the more powerful nodes in a hierarchical structured WSN to track down these intruders and thereby prevent further damage. To fundamentally improve the security of a WSN, a multi-target tracking algorithm is developed to track the intruders. For the inside attacks, the attackers are compromised insiders. The intruders manipulate these insiders to indirectly attack other sensors. Therefore, detecting these malicious insiders in a timely manner is important to improve the security of a network. In this dissertation, we mainly focus on detecting the malicious insiders that try to break the normal communication among sensors, which creates holes in the WSN. As the malicious insiders attempt to break the communication by actively using HELLO flooding attack, we apply an immune-inspired algorithm called Dendritic Cell Algorithm (DCA) to detect this type of attack. If the malicious insiders adopt a subtle way to break the communication by dropping received packets, we implement another proposed technique, a short-and-safe routing (SSR) protocol to prevent this type of attack. The designed security mechanism can be applied to different sizes of both static and dynamic WSNs. We adopt a popular simulation tool, ns-2, and a numerical computing environment, MATLAB, to analyze and compare the computational complexities of the proposed security mechanism. Simulation results demonstrate effective performance of the developed corrective and preventive security mechanisms on detecting malicious nodes and tracking the intruders.

No / Wireless sensor networks are an emerging technology for low-cost, unattended monitoring of a wide range of environments. Their importance has been enforced by the recent delivery of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard for the physical and MAC layers and the forthcoming ZigBee standard for the network and application layers. The fast progress of research on energy efficiency, networking, data management and security in wireless sensor networks, and the need to compare with the solutions adopted in the standards motivates the need for a survey on this field.

Prolonging the battery lifetime of sensors has been one of the most important issues in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). With the development of Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) technology, sensors can be recharged and possibly have infinite lifetime. One common approach to achieving this is having a wireless charging vehicle (WCV) move in the system coverage area and charge sensors nearby when it stops. The duration that the WCV stays at each charging location, the amount of traffic that each sensor carries, and the transmission power of individual sensors are closely related, and their joint optimization affects not only the data transmissions in the WSN but also energy consumption of the system. This problem is formulated as a mixed integer and nonconvex optimization problem. Different from existing work that either solves similar problems using genetic algorithms or considers charging sensors based on clusters, we consider the optimum charging time for each sensor, and solve the joint communication and charging problem optimally. Numerical results demonstrate that our solution can significantly reduce the average power consumption of the system, compared to the cluster-based charging solution. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc) / In a wireless sensor network (WSN), sensor nodes monitor the physical environment and forward the collected data to a data sink for further processing. Sensors are battery powered and, therefore, prolonging the lifetime of their batteries is critically important. In a rechargeable WSN (RWSN), prolonging the battery lifetime of sensors is achieved through reducing communication energy and recharging the batteries periodically. Reducing the communication energy consumption is done through choosing the best forwarding sensors (i.e., routing) for data collected by each sensor and deciding the transmission power of each sensor (i.e., power allocation). Recharging the batteries is achieved through harvesting energy from external sources. In this thesis, we consider a RWSN that uses wireless power transfer as the energy harvesting technology and jointly optimizes charging and communications in order to minimize the power consumption of the RWSN.

The work described in this thesis is concerned with self-localisation (automated estimation of sensor locations) and source-localisation (location of a target) using Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). The motivation for the research in this thesis is the on-line localisation of marmots from their alarm calls. The application requires accurate 3D self-localisation (within a small percentage of sensor spacing) as well as timely operation. Further challenges are added by the high data-rate involved: sensor nodes acquire data at a rate that is greater than the available network bandwidth. This data cannot be streamed over a multi-hop network, implying a need for data reduction through in-network event detection and local data compression or filtering techniques. The research approach adopted in this thesis combined simulation, emulation and real-life experimentation. Real-life deployment and experimentation highlighted problems that could not be predicted in controlled experiments or simulation. Emulation used data gathered from controlled, real-life experimentation to simulate proposed system refinements; this was sufficient to provide a proof-of-concept validation for some of the concepts developed. Simulation allowed the understanding of underlying theoretical behaviour without involving the complex environmental effects caused by real-life experimentation. This thesis details contributions in two distinct aspects of localisation: acoustic ranging and end-toend deployable acoustic source localisation systems. With regard to acoustic ranging and 3D localisation, two WSN platforms were evaluated: one commercially available, but heavily constrained (Mica2) and one custom-built for accurate localisation (Embedded Networked Sensing Box (ENSBox)). A new proof of concept platform for acoustic sensing (based on the Gumstix single-board computer) was developed by the author (including the implementation of a ranging mechanism), based on experiences with the platforms above. Furthermore, the literature was found to lack a specific procedure for evaluation and comparison of self-localisation algorithms from theoretical conception to real-life testing. Therefore, an evaluation cycle for self-localisation algorithms that encompassed simulation, emulation and real-life deployment was developed. With respect to source localisation, a hardware and software platform named VoxNet was designed and implemented.

Energy e ciency is a critical constraint in wireless sensor networks. Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) consist of a large number of battery-powered sensor nodes, connected to each other and equipped with low-power transmission radios. Usually, the sensor nodes closer to the sink are more likely to become overloaded and subject to draining their battery faster than the nodes farther away, creating a funneling e ect. The use of a mobile device as a sink node to perform data gathering is a well known solution to balance the energy consumption in the entire network. To address this problem, in this work we consider the use of an UAV as a mobile sink. An unmanned aircraft vehicle (UAV) is an aircraft without a human pilot on-board, popularly known as a Drone. In this thesis, besides the use of the UAV as a mobile sink node, we propose an UAV-aided algorithm for data gathering in wireless sensor networks, called Humming- bird. Our distributed algorithm is energy-e cient. Rather than using an arbitrary path, the UAV implements an approximation algorithm to solve the well-known NP- Hard problem, the Traveling Salesman Problem (or TSP), to setup the trajectory of node points to visit for data gathering. In our approach, both the path planning and the data gathering are performed by the UAV, and this is seamlessly integrated with sensor data reporting. The results, using ns-3 network simulator show that our algorithm improves the network lifetime compared to regular (non-UAV) data gathering, especially for data intensive applications. / Includes bibliography. / Thesis (M.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2018. / FAU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Collection

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) provide rapid, untethered access to information, eliminating the barriers of distance, time, and location for many applications in national security, civilian search and rescue operations, surveillance, border monitoring, and many more. Sensor nodes are resource constraint in terms of power, bandwidth, memory, and computing capabilities. Sensor nodes are typically battery powered and depending on the application, it may be impractical or even impossible to recharge them. Thus, it is important to develop mechanisms for WSN which are energy efficient, in order to reduce the energy consumption in the network. Energy efficient algorithms result in an increased network lifetime. Data gathering is an important operation in WSNs, dealing with collecting sensed data or event reporting in a timely and efficient way. There are various scenarios that have to be carefully addressed. In this dissertation we propose energy efficient algorithms for data gathering. We propose a novel event-based clustering mechanism, and propose several efficient data gathering algorithms for mobile sink WSNs and for spatio-temporal events. Border surveillance is an important application of WSNs. Typical border surveillance applications aim to detect intruders attempting to enter or exit the border of a certain region. Deploying a set of sensor nodes on a region of interest where sensors form barriers for intruders is often referred to as the barrier coverage problem. In this dissertation we propose some novel mechanisms for increasing the percentage of events detected successfully. More specifically, we propose an adaptive sensor rotation mechanism, which allow sensors to decide their orientation angle adaptively, based on the location of the incoming events. In addition, we propose an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle UAV aided mechanism, where an UAV is used to cover gaps dynamically, resulting in an increased quality of the surveillance. / Includes bibliography. / Dissertation (Ph.D.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2019. / FAU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Collection

We use tools and techniques from information theory to improve the design of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). We do this by first developing a model for WSNs that is analogous to models of communication systems in information theory. In particular, we define the notion of WSN Coding, which is analogous to source coding from information theory, and the Collection Channel, which is analogous to a transport channel in information theory. We then use source coding theorems from information theory to develop three results that aid in WSN design. First, we propose a new top-level design metric for WSNs. Second, we develop an efficiency measure for the sensing process in a WSN. Finally, we use techniques from source coding schemes to suggest new designs for WSNs and the sensors they contain. We strive for tools that apply under the most general conditions possible so that designers can use them in any WSN. However, we also apply each tool to a specific example WSN illustrate the tool's value.

In Wireless Sensor and Robot Networks (WSRNs), static sensors report event information to one of the robots. In the k nearest neighbour query processing problem in WSRNs, the robot receives event report needs to find exact k nearest robots (KNN) to react to the event, among those connected to it. We are interested in localized solutions, which avoid message flooding to the whole network. Several existing methods restrict the search within a predetermined boundary. Some network density-based estimation algorithms were proposed but they either result in large message transmission or require the density information of the whole network in advance which is complex to implement and lacks robustness. Algorithms with tree structures lead to the excessive energy consumption and large latency caused by structural construction. Itinerary based approaches generate large latency or unsatisfactory accuracy. In this thesis, we propose a new method to estimate a search boundary, which is a circle centred at the query point. Two algorithms are presented to disseminate the message to robots of interest and aggregate their data (e.g. the distance to query point). Multiple Auction Aggregation (MAA) is an algorithm based on auction protocol, with multiple copies of query message being disseminated into the network to get the best bidding from each robot. Partial Depth First Search (PDFS) attempts to traverse all the robots of interest with a query message to gather the data by depth first search. This thesis also optimizes a traditional itinerary-based KNN query processing method called IKNN and compares this algorithm with our proposed MAA and PDFS algorithms. The experimental results followed indicate that the overall performance of MAA and PDFS outweighs IKNN in WSRNs.