Families provide individual members with a means of financial, social, and emotional support (Lavee, McCubbin & Olsen, 1987; Minuchin, 1985). Individuals have sought ways to improve family functioning in order to aid in personal development and the betterment of society (Broderick, 1993). Past research has shown that families that play or recreate together are likely to have higher levels of functioning (Orthner & Mancini, 1991). Youth sport has also been shown to be an external system that can provide a context that can lead to positive outcomes (Ewing et al., 2002). High functioning families set and achieve goals, regulate external boundaries, manage internal communications and regulate space within the family (Broderick, 1993). Coakley (2009) notes that the emphasis in youth sport in the U.S. has shifted towards a focus on skill development. With this shift, the time and financial demands on families for participation in these sport leagues has increased as well. While we know much about how families support sport participation, we know little about how this participation impacts families. This study seeks to answer the following research questions:What elements of the youth sport experience place particular demands on the family system? How do the aspects of family functioning interact with sport to mitigate the effects of the demands placed on the family from participation from youth sports? Seven families with at least one child participating in elite youth sport were interviewed. The data showed that families are willingly engaging with these leagues despite the stress they place on the family. Large financial and time demands are placed on the family that impacts the family in various ways. Elite youth sport is given high priority that may impact the marital dyad and the non-athlete sibling. Despite the additional strain that these leagues place on the family, families are still making a series of trade-offs to enroll in these leagues for the skill development of their child. / text

Research in the field of developmental psychology has highlighted the importance of structured activities in providing positive experiences and outcomes for youth. In particular, youth participation in organized sport has been linked to the development of physical, motor, and psychosocial skills. Although these outcomes have been discussed in the sport psychology literature, it is not clear how positive youth development may be facilitated through sport. An ecological approach was used to examine developmental processes, personal characteristics, contextual factors, and time elements that may be linked to youth sport participation and positive development. Study 1 used a quantitative methodology to examine the relationship between developmental asset possession and youth sport outcomes such as burnout and enjoyment. Of the eight asset categories examined, four emerged as significant predictors of burnout and/or enjoyment. Specifically, positive identity, support, and empowerment were linked to burnout and positive identity, empowerment, and social competencies were linked to enjoyment. Study 2 also utilized a quantitative methodology in order to investigate differences between a group of youth sport “specializers” and a group of youth sport “samplers”. Outcomes including burnout, enjoyment, and developmental assets were compared as well as experiences in sport. The groups did not differ in developmental asset possession or in sources of enjoyment. However, “samplers” reported more experiences integrating sport, family, and community whereas “specializers” were more likely to have more experiences with diverse peer groups. The “specializers” also reported higher levels of burnout (i.e., exhaustion) relating to their sport participation. Study 3 examined the development of positive youth within a sport specialization context. Through the use of interviews with elite youth sport coaches and practice observations, four characteristics (i.e., appropriate training structure, opportunities for personal and social development, opportunities for physical and motor skill development, and the presence of supportive interactions) were developed outlining how elite sport settings can enable the development of positive youth. This line of research highlighted the key role of the sport experience in promoting positive youth development. If youth sport programs are delivered with an emphasis on skill development in conjunction with the growth of key assets and an appropriate contextual experience, young people have the potential to emerge as healthy, secure, and positive citizens who feel valued and invested within their homes and communities. / Thesis (Ph.D, Kinesiology & Health Studies) -- Queen's University, 2008-06-26 10:18:58.482

The 5Cs (competence, confidence, connection, character and caring/compassion) have been proposed as important constructs that describe the presence of positive youth development (PYD; Lerner et al., 2005). While the 5Cs are intuitively appealing, a recent study failed to provide support for the framework of the 5Cs within a sample of youth sport participants (Jones, Dunn, Holt, Sullivan, & Bloom, in press). Rather than abandoning the framework of the Cs in the youth sport setting, this finding highlights the importance of developing a sport-specific framework. In applying the 5Cs to sport, Côté, Bruner, Erickson, Strachan, and Fraser-Thomas (2010) found that competence, confidence, and connection were well represented in the sport literature, but that caring/compassion were embedded within the character literature. As a result, they collapsed the 5Cs into a 4Cs framework, which has been used in the current study. The purpose of the current study was to garner an understanding of what each of the 4Cs mean to a group of youth sport participants in the sport context. To this end, 10 single-sex focus groups were conducted with 49 youth sport participants (24 boys, 25 girls), 9 to 13 years old (M=10.8 years). The participants were involved in a variety of sports, with soccer, hockey, baseball/softball, and lacrosse being the most common. Data analyses revealed the types of information that participants use to form their perceptions of the 4Cs, along with the sources from which this information is obtained. Participants indicated that they used information from coaches, parents, peers, self-perceptions, and the sport context in creating their understanding of the 4Cs. Participants referred to obtaining information from peers regarding all 4Cs. Conversely, coaches were referenced regarding competence, confidence, and connection, but not character. Parents were not referenced by the participants in their understanding of connection or character in the sport setting. Notable findings also include the strong emphasis participants placed on their level of effort in determining their competence and confidence. Overall, results highlight the importance of providing young athletes opportunities to experience success and interact with peers in a fun and inclusive sport environment. / Thesis (Master, Kinesiology & Health Studies) -- Queen's University, 2011-06-29 11:19:29.956

The purpose of this study was to analyze the coach-athlete interactions occurring in a successful sport program for athletes with disabilities and their able-bodied siblings. The successful nature of this program was established by its athletes’ competitive achievements and by the athletes’ reports of positive experiences within this sport environment. This study utilized state space grid and observational methodology and was the second application of this methodology in field-based sport psychology research (Erickson, Côté, Hollenstein, & Deakin, in press). The head coach of the program and twenty-four athletes were observed over multiple practice sessions. Both coach and athlete behaviour was coded continuously for the duration of each practice session. Measures of coach-athlete interaction structure, based on dynamic systems concepts, were derived from these coded behaviours. These measures were examined for the team as a whole and compared between groups within the team (competitive vs. recreational athletes and athletes with disabilities vs. able-bodied athletes). Results indicated that the coach-athlete interactions of the team were highly patterned. Within this consistent pattern, the coach spent most of her time silently observing the athletes. Other commonly exhibited behaviours included individualized technical instruction, organization, and positive feedback. With regards to behavioural sequencing, the coach’s time spent observing the athletes was often interspersed with periods of organization, instruction, and feedback. The coach appeared to adapt her coaching style according to the competitive levels of the athletes, but no differences emerged when comparing the coach-athlete interactions between athletes with disabilities and able-bodied athletes. Overall, this successful sport environment was characterized by positive coach-athlete interactions that were deliberately patterned and mutually respectful. / Thesis (Master, Kinesiology & Health Studies) -- Queen's University, 2011-06-29 11:00:23.466

Smith (2003) suggested in an influential review paper that behavioural observation and sociometry were two potentially useful but under-utilized methods for the study of peers in youth sport. Despite this call, the methods used to study peers in sport remain largely focused on athletes’ perceptions through questionnaires and interviews (Murphy-Mills, Bruner, Erickson, & Côté, 2011). Thus, the purpose of this project was to examine sociometric status, competence, and athlete behaviour in a youth sport context using an observational coding system. Female volleyball players (N = 28; Mage = 15.94) from three competitive teams completed the sport competence and peer connection inventories (Vierimaa, Erickson, Côté, & Gilbert, 2012), and each team was videotaped during three practices. An observational coding system was developed and used to code athlete behaviours in a continuous, time-based manner and this data was compared across sociometric status groups. The results reinforce past research that suggests that sport competence is an important factor in gaining peer acceptance among youth (e.g., Weiss & Duncan, 1992). Behavioural profiles were constructed for each sociometric status group, which revealed differences between groups in relation to interactions with peers, coaches, and overall sociability. Rejected and neglected athletes appeared to be less sociable than average, interacting less with peers and coaches. Coaches also appeared to spend more time interacting with popular athletes who they viewed as more competent, and less with rejected and neglected athletes who they viewed as less competent. Thus, sociometry appears to be a useful approach with which to study young athletes’ behaviour in sport. / Thesis (Master, Kinesiology & Health Studies) -- Queen's University, 2012-12-20 13:50:52.64

According to the 2008 Statistics Canada report on the extracurricular activities of Canadian children and youth, approximate 76% of Canadians under the age of 17 participate in sport. As such, sport represents a significant developmental experience in many young peoples’ lives. Whether this experience is positive or negative depends on a number of factors related to the specific context in which sport participation occurs. In particular, interpersonal interactions are known to be a significant influence on athlete development and may vary greatly across sport contexts. In youth sport, there are two primary contexts of participation: coach-driven organized sport and youth-driven informal sport play. The purpose of the present program of research was to examine the predominant interpersonal interactions occurring in organized sport and informal sport play contexts and their relationship to athlete development. Study 1 was methodological and presents the development and validation of an observational coding system designed to capture the motivational tone of youth sport coaches’ interactions with their athletes. Motivational tone represents a theoretically relevant but previously unexplored dimension of coaches’ interactive behaviour. Study 2 used the newly developed coding system from study 1 to examine the motivational tone of coach-athlete interactions in competitive youth volleyball, an organized sport context. Using a person-centred analysis approach, these coach-athlete interaction were then linked to athletes’ longitudinal development trajectories over the course of the competitive season. Results revealed significant differences in the coach-athlete interaction profiles of athletes on a negative developmental trajectory compared to athletes on a positive developmental trajectory. Study 3 was an exploratory observational examination of peer interactive behaviour in an informal sport play context. These interactive behaviours were examined with respect to athletes’ developmental outcomes. Results pointed to the social nature of participation in informal sport play contexts and the critical relationship between athlete competence and peer interaction tendencies. Overall, the results of the three studies comprising this program of research offered new information to further our understanding of interpersonal interactions and athlete development in different youth sport contexts but also identified several avenues requiring further research. / Thesis (Ph.D, Kinesiology & Health Studies) -- Queen's University, 2013-09-27 14:27:49.668

No description available.

No description available.

There is a dearth of literature examining how the cohesiveness of the team may be connected to individual athlete participation in youth sport settings. Although results from studies conducted with adult athletes (Carron, Widmeyer, & Brawley, 1988; Prapavessis & Carron, 1997a; Spink, 1995) suggest a positive link between perceptions of team cohesion and individual participation, this relationship has not been established with adolescent athletes. The purposes of the studies in this dissertation were: (1) to examine the relationship between cohesion and participation in a youth sport sample; (2) to examine if task cohesion moderated the relationship between perceptions of teammates’ effort levels (descriptive norms) and a participation-related outcome (effort); (3) to experimentally test the combined influence of cohesion and descriptive norms on individual self-reported effort; and (4) to explore the plausibility of teammate support as one possible mediator of the cohesion-participation relationship. A multivariate approach was used in Study 1 to both establish the initial relationship between cohesion and individual participation as well as inform subsequent studies in this dissertation by identifying which specific cohesion factors (task, social) and participation-related outcomes (effort, attendance, intention to return to the team) were most strongly related. Multivariate results revealed that task cohesion was associated with two participation outcomes – effort and intention to return to the team. Examining if perceptions of cohesion would qualify the link between perceptions about how hard teammates were working and individual athletes’ self-reported effort levels was the purpose of Study 2. Both constructs emerged as positive, significant correlates of effort. As a follow up, a between-subjects experimental design with vignettes was used in Study 3 to test the combined effects of cohesion and descriptive norms about teammate effort on individual self-reported effort levels. Building upon Study 2’s correlational findings, cohesion and descriptive norms both had an independent, positive influence on how hard players rated that they would work. The purpose of Study 4 was to consider one possible reason why team cohesion may be associated with individual participation - social support. To examine the proposition that social support may mediate the relationship between cohesion and participation, a prospective design was used in Study 4 to test the links between early-season cohesion, late-season perceptions of social support, and two participation-related outcomes (effort, intention to return to the team in the future). Results supported the plausibility of social support as a partial mediator for both outcomes. Taken together, these four studies provided initial evidence for the potential link between team cohesion and individual participation in youth sport. Additionally, the emergence of two other team-related constructs, descriptive norms and social support, suggests that these forms of teammate influence also may be associated with youth sport athletes’ participation on their team.

Although there currently exists an in-depth empirical understanding of parents experiences and involvement in youth sport, there is an absence of published field-based intervention research specifically with sport parents (Harwood & Knight, 2015). In order to address this gap in the literature, this thesis developed a psychosocial parent education programme for British Tennis. The first study identified the education and support needs of tennis parents operating within British high performance centres (study one). Adopting a grounded theory design, data were collected through informal chats, observations, and formal interviews with parents, coaches, and ex-youth players (n=29) during a six-month period of fieldwork. Findings revealed how parents education and support needs occur across multiple levels of functioning (i.e., social, organisational, developmental, and intra-interpersonal) and are influenced by the developmental stage that parents operate in. This theoretical framework was then used as the basis for a group-based tennis parent education programme (study two). Using a qualitative organisational action research framework seven workshops were run over a 12-week period for parents with children between the ages of 5 and 10 years. Participant diaries, social validation feedback forms, and post programme focus groups (n=19) revealed perceived improvements in parents knowledge, affect, and skills across a range of learning objectives. In an attempt to improve accessibility and extend participation, the final study utilised a convergent parallel mixed methods design to examine the effectiveness of an online education programme for British tennis parents (n=38) and their perceptions of engaging in the programme (study three). Quantitative findings revealed positive directional changes in tennis parent efficacy, general parent efficacy, emotional experiences, and achievement goal orientations after completing the programme. Qualitative data provided complementary and unique insights into what worked, how, and why. Taken together, the studies within this thesis are the first to demonstrate the effectiveness of face-to-face and online sport parent education programmes. Findings also extend and advance existing recommendations and guidelines in relation to the design, development, implementation, and evaluation of education programmes for sport parents. In particular, studies illustrate the importance and value of providing sport parents with accessible, proactive, structured, and developmentally appropriate education and support which addresses their stage-specific needs.