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Youth offending is an increasingly major problem in many countries and cultures. Several theories imply that a subset of young people display delinquent behaviour at a young age and go on to have an extensive and serious criminal career. Recently, there has been interest in the literature in identifying these young people early on and carrying out interventions in order to deter them from a criminal career. Many studies have examined the development and usefulness of actuarial measures of risk of future violence or recidivism in adult offenders. However, the same attention has not been paid to the youth offender population. The present study gathered data from the population (N = 4307) of all young persons in New Zealand whose antisocial behaviour resulted in a Youth Justice intake from the Department of Child, Youth, and Family (CYF) in 2002. Information was obtained about this population from the CYF database, CYRAS, and from the Police National Intelligence Application database for a stratified random sample (N = 500). Three models were developed using Hierarchical Cox regression to predict recidivism, and they each used a different definition of recidivism. The performance of the models was assessed using ROC analysis and they were found to predict recidivism with a moderately good level of accuracy. A validation sample (N = 500), different from the sample on which the models were developed, was used to further assess the performance of the models by showing that they were able to generalize to a new data set and continue to perform at an adequate level. An actuarial model, like the one developed in the present study, could be used to help make decisions about which young people within the Youth Justice System require intervention in order to reduce the likelihood of subsequent reoffending.

Youth offending is an increasingly major problem in many countries and cultures. Several theories imply that a subset of young people display delinquent behaviour at a young age and go on to have an extensive and serious criminal career. Recently, there has been interest in the literature in identifying these young people early on and carrying out interventions in order to deter them from a criminal career. Many studies have examined the development and usefulness of actuarial measures of risk of future violence or recidivism in adult offenders. However, the same attention has not been paid to the youth offender population. The present study gathered data from the population (N = 4307) of all young persons in New Zealand whose antisocial behaviour resulted in a Youth Justice intake from the Department of Child, Youth, and Family (CYF) in 2002. Information was obtained about this population from the CYF database, CYRAS, and from the Police National Intelligence Application database for a stratified random sample (N = 500). Three models were developed using Hierarchical Cox regression to predict recidivism, and they each used a different definition of recidivism. The performance of the models was assessed using ROC analysis and they were found to predict recidivism with a moderately good level of accuracy. A validation sample (N = 500), different from the sample on which the models were developed, was used to further assess the performance of the models by showing that they were able to generalize to a new data set and continue to perform at an adequate level. An actuarial model, like the one developed in the present study, could be used to help make decisions about which young people within the Youth Justice System require intervention in order to reduce the likelihood of subsequent reoffending.

Over the past 10 years there has been increasing awareness and concern that a significant number of young people either in, or deemed to be at risk of being in, the criminal justice system have identified or unidentified special educational needs. Youth offending teams were set up to address young people’s offending behaviour but knowledge among professionals working in the teams of teaching and learning and, more specifically, about special educational needs is not a necessary prerequisite for gaining employment. There is therefore a potential role for educational psychologists to support youth offending workers so that they can take account of and respond to the special educational needs of the young people for whom they are responsible.This research was divided into two phases and used an action research methodology in order to explore the development of the role of an Educational Psychology Service within a Youth Offending Team (YOT). Phase 1 explored the views of the YOTs using three focus groups on issues relating to special educational needs and their views on if, and how, educational psychologists (EPs) could support them in their delivery of services to young people. Although views differed across different teams there was a general perception that overall the knowledge base in relation to SEN within the service was limited. Other key themes related to relationships with schools and other professionals as well as issues around confidence and working with conflicting time scales.Potential areas of work were identified by the three focus groups and, in particular, the usefulness of being able to have direct access to an EP. Consultation was chosen as model of service delivery as, not only is this a growing model of service delivery for EPs, it also met the YOT’s request for direct access in that there was no threshold that needed to be met before they could access the service. Phase 2 of the study therefore consisted of the implementation and evaluation of a pilot consultation service.In phase 2 seven consultations with YOT staff took place which focused on how they could develop their work with individual children for whom they were responsible. Findings indicated that the presenting difficulties experienced by the young people varied as did the ‘type’ and ‘degree’ of their special educational needs. In relation to the content of the consultations, the emphasis was often on ‘increasing engagement’ by the young person in the work they had to do. Interestingly the range of difficulties experienced by the young people was no different from those raised by schools in their regular work with EPs. Although the sample was small, all of the consultees perceived positive outcomes to the consultations. However, potential barriers were also identified in relation to the continuation of the service.

This study addresses the hitherto limited research on sexually abusive children and youths in New Zealand (NZ). It encompasses children (12 years or younger) and youths (13 to 19 years) referred to the three largest specialised community sexual offender treatment programmes in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch over a 9½ year period. Additionally, three special populations are considered: female sexually abusive youth, youth with ‘special needs’ and children (12 years and under). To increase our understanding of the individual, offending and family characteristics of these children and youths in specialised community treatment programmes in New Zealand Study One audited client’s clinical files (N = 702). Consistent with international research, New Zealand children and youth who engaged in sexually abusive behaviours not only presented with sexually abusive behaviour(s) but also had other psychological and behavioural issues. These included a history of childhood sexual and physical abuse (38%, n = 263 and 39%, n = 272 respectively), behavioural (63%, n = 442) and mental health problems (65%, n = 457), drug and alcohol misuse (22%, n = 156) and a history of suicide ideation or deliberate self-harm (27%, n = 187). They often had poor social skills (46%, n = 326) and had struggled to establish appropriate peer relationships (44%, n = 306). Many of the children and youth came from multi-problem and chaotic family backgrounds (e.g., 55%, n = 387 of parents were divorced or separated, 38%, n = 267 were exposed to domestic violence and 32%, n = 222 had family member(s) with a substance abuse problem) and had experienced numerous out-of-home placements (57%, n = 389). Factors associated with resiliency were also investigated. It was found that children and youth primarily victimised male and female children (12 years or younger) (70%, n = 1407), who were acquaintances (57%, n = 1295) or relatives (32%, n = 730). Very few victimised strangers (7%, n = 86 of victims were strangers). They engaged in both ‘hands on’ (e.g., penetrative acts) and ‘hands off’ offences (e.g., voyeurism). Study Two was a naturalistic treatment outcome study to explore treatment outcomes and involved 682 sexually abusive children and youth who attended three specialised community treatment programmes in New Zealand. The main outcome of interest was sexual recidivism (prevalence rate of re-offending during the follow-up period) with secondary outcome variables of general and violent recidivism. The follow-up period ranged from 1 year to 10 years (mean 4.5 years, SD = 2.2). Three groups were compared: the ‘Comparison’ group (referral or assessment only, n = 300), ‘Treatment Dropout’ group (those who prematurely terminated their involvement in treatment, n = 165) and the ‘Treatment Completer’ group (those successfully completing treatment, n = 217). To allow for triangulation of offences that were dealt with through the youth and adult justice system’s recidivism data were collected from multiple sources (Child, Youth and Family , Youth Court, and Police criminal charges and convictions data). Post-treatment sexual, general (nonsexual and non-violent) and violent recidivism are reported from each data source as well as overall sexual, general and violent recidivism. Sexual, general and violent re-offending that occurred while the children and youths were attending treatment are also presented. Changes in behavioural problems and the psychological functioning of sexually abusive children and youth between assessment and the end of treatment (as assessed by the Child Behavior Checklist, Youth Self Report and Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory) contribute additional outcome measures. This naturalistic outcome study found that the treatment programmes were effective in reducing sexual recidivism amongst sexually abusive children and youth who completed treatment compared with those who did not complete treatment. Less than 3% (2.8%, n = 8) of Treatment Completers sexually re-offended compared with 6% (n = 17) of the Comparison group and 10% (n = 16) of the Treatment Dropout group. Treatment Dropouts were found to be at highest risk of sexual, general and violent recidivism. Recidivism for the three special populations (children, females and ‘special needs’ youth) are also presented. The results from the psychological measures indicate a general pattern of reduction in behavioural and psychological problems between assessment and end of treatment. Logistic regression analysis was used in Study Three (N = 682) to explore factors associated with the risk of sexual and nonsexual (violent and general offending) re-offending post-treatment and dropping out of treatment. The factor predictive of sexual recidivism risk was having three or more victims and was associated with a decreased risk of sexual recidivism. Older age at first known sexual offence was associated with increased chance of nonsexual recidivism. Dropping out of treatment and having a history of nonsexual offending were associated with a decreased risk of nonsexual recidivism. Older age at referral and having no external mandate to attend treatment were associated with increased risk of youth dropping out of treatment. A history of mental health problems was associated with a decreased risk of treatment dropout. Conclusions This is the first study of the characteristics and treatment outcomes of sexually abusive children and youth in New Zealand. Its strengths include the large sample size, length of the follow-up period, use of a comparison group and data triangulation to determine recidivism. This study, therefore, compares favourably with international studies. This research enhances understanding of the individual, family and offending characteristics of sexually abusive youth in New Zealand as well as children, females and special needs youth. The Cognitive Behavioural Theory (CBT) based approach of the community programmes in New Zealand was found to be effective in reducing recidivism amongst children and youths who completed treatment. Specific recommendations relevant to treatment programmes and statutory agencies around programme development, referral processes and identification of sexually abusive children and youth are made. Directions for future research are also discussed. These include research exploring outcomes, other than recidivism, for those attending the Maori programmes, possible exploration of typologies within New Zealand sexually abusive children and youth, and subsequent follow-up research. / University of Auckland Doctoral Scholarship

This study addresses the hitherto limited research on sexually abusive children and youths in New Zealand (NZ). It encompasses children (12 years or younger) and youths (13 to 19 years) referred to the three largest specialised community sexual offender treatment programmes in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch over a 9½ year period. Additionally, three special populations are considered: female sexually abusive youth, youth with ‘special needs’ and children (12 years and under). To increase our understanding of the individual, offending and family characteristics of these children and youths in specialised community treatment programmes in New Zealand Study One audited client’s clinical files (N = 702). Consistent with international research, New Zealand children and youth who engaged in sexually abusive behaviours not only presented with sexually abusive behaviour(s) but also had other psychological and behavioural issues. These included a history of childhood sexual and physical abuse (38%, n = 263 and 39%, n = 272 respectively), behavioural (63%, n = 442) and mental health problems (65%, n = 457), drug and alcohol misuse (22%, n = 156) and a history of suicide ideation or deliberate self-harm (27%, n = 187). They often had poor social skills (46%, n = 326) and had struggled to establish appropriate peer relationships (44%, n = 306). Many of the children and youth came from multi-problem and chaotic family backgrounds (e.g., 55%, n = 387 of parents were divorced or separated, 38%, n = 267 were exposed to domestic violence and 32%, n = 222 had family member(s) with a substance abuse problem) and had experienced numerous out-of-home placements (57%, n = 389). Factors associated with resiliency were also investigated. It was found that children and youth primarily victimised male and female children (12 years or younger) (70%, n = 1407), who were acquaintances (57%, n = 1295) or relatives (32%, n = 730). Very few victimised strangers (7%, n = 86 of victims were strangers). They engaged in both ‘hands on’ (e.g., penetrative acts) and ‘hands off’ offences (e.g., voyeurism). Study Two was a naturalistic treatment outcome study to explore treatment outcomes and involved 682 sexually abusive children and youth who attended three specialised community treatment programmes in New Zealand. The main outcome of interest was sexual recidivism (prevalence rate of re-offending during the follow-up period) with secondary outcome variables of general and violent recidivism. The follow-up period ranged from 1 year to 10 years (mean 4.5 years, SD = 2.2). Three groups were compared: the ‘Comparison’ group (referral or assessment only, n = 300), ‘Treatment Dropout’ group (those who prematurely terminated their involvement in treatment, n = 165) and the ‘Treatment Completer’ group (those successfully completing treatment, n = 217). To allow for triangulation of offences that were dealt with through the youth and adult justice system’s recidivism data were collected from multiple sources (Child, Youth and Family , Youth Court, and Police criminal charges and convictions data). Post-treatment sexual, general (nonsexual and non-violent) and violent recidivism are reported from each data source as well as overall sexual, general and violent recidivism. Sexual, general and violent re-offending that occurred while the children and youths were attending treatment are also presented. Changes in behavioural problems and the psychological functioning of sexually abusive children and youth between assessment and the end of treatment (as assessed by the Child Behavior Checklist, Youth Self Report and Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory) contribute additional outcome measures. This naturalistic outcome study found that the treatment programmes were effective in reducing sexual recidivism amongst sexually abusive children and youth who completed treatment compared with those who did not complete treatment. Less than 3% (2.8%, n = 8) of Treatment Completers sexually re-offended compared with 6% (n = 17) of the Comparison group and 10% (n = 16) of the Treatment Dropout group. Treatment Dropouts were found to be at highest risk of sexual, general and violent recidivism. Recidivism for the three special populations (children, females and ‘special needs’ youth) are also presented. The results from the psychological measures indicate a general pattern of reduction in behavioural and psychological problems between assessment and end of treatment. Logistic regression analysis was used in Study Three (N = 682) to explore factors associated with the risk of sexual and nonsexual (violent and general offending) re-offending post-treatment and dropping out of treatment. The factor predictive of sexual recidivism risk was having three or more victims and was associated with a decreased risk of sexual recidivism. Older age at first known sexual offence was associated with increased chance of nonsexual recidivism. Dropping out of treatment and having a history of nonsexual offending were associated with a decreased risk of nonsexual recidivism. Older age at referral and having no external mandate to attend treatment were associated with increased risk of youth dropping out of treatment. A history of mental health problems was associated with a decreased risk of treatment dropout. Conclusions This is the first study of the characteristics and treatment outcomes of sexually abusive children and youth in New Zealand. Its strengths include the large sample size, length of the follow-up period, use of a comparison group and data triangulation to determine recidivism. This study, therefore, compares favourably with international studies. This research enhances understanding of the individual, family and offending characteristics of sexually abusive youth in New Zealand as well as children, females and special needs youth. The Cognitive Behavioural Theory (CBT) based approach of the community programmes in New Zealand was found to be effective in reducing recidivism amongst children and youths who completed treatment. Specific recommendations relevant to treatment programmes and statutory agencies around programme development, referral processes and identification of sexually abusive children and youth are made. Directions for future research are also discussed. These include research exploring outcomes, other than recidivism, for those attending the Maori programmes, possible exploration of typologies within New Zealand sexually abusive children and youth, and subsequent follow-up research. / University of Auckland Doctoral Scholarship

This study addresses the hitherto limited research on sexually abusive children and youths in New Zealand (NZ). It encompasses children (12 years or younger) and youths (13 to 19 years) referred to the three largest specialised community sexual offender treatment programmes in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch over a 9½ year period. Additionally, three special populations are considered: female sexually abusive youth, youth with ‘special needs’ and children (12 years and under). To increase our understanding of the individual, offending and family characteristics of these children and youths in specialised community treatment programmes in New Zealand Study One audited client’s clinical files (N = 702). Consistent with international research, New Zealand children and youth who engaged in sexually abusive behaviours not only presented with sexually abusive behaviour(s) but also had other psychological and behavioural issues. These included a history of childhood sexual and physical abuse (38%, n = 263 and 39%, n = 272 respectively), behavioural (63%, n = 442) and mental health problems (65%, n = 457), drug and alcohol misuse (22%, n = 156) and a history of suicide ideation or deliberate self-harm (27%, n = 187). They often had poor social skills (46%, n = 326) and had struggled to establish appropriate peer relationships (44%, n = 306). Many of the children and youth came from multi-problem and chaotic family backgrounds (e.g., 55%, n = 387 of parents were divorced or separated, 38%, n = 267 were exposed to domestic violence and 32%, n = 222 had family member(s) with a substance abuse problem) and had experienced numerous out-of-home placements (57%, n = 389). Factors associated with resiliency were also investigated. It was found that children and youth primarily victimised male and female children (12 years or younger) (70%, n = 1407), who were acquaintances (57%, n = 1295) or relatives (32%, n = 730). Very few victimised strangers (7%, n = 86 of victims were strangers). They engaged in both ‘hands on’ (e.g., penetrative acts) and ‘hands off’ offences (e.g., voyeurism). Study Two was a naturalistic treatment outcome study to explore treatment outcomes and involved 682 sexually abusive children and youth who attended three specialised community treatment programmes in New Zealand. The main outcome of interest was sexual recidivism (prevalence rate of re-offending during the follow-up period) with secondary outcome variables of general and violent recidivism. The follow-up period ranged from 1 year to 10 years (mean 4.5 years, SD = 2.2). Three groups were compared: the ‘Comparison’ group (referral or assessment only, n = 300), ‘Treatment Dropout’ group (those who prematurely terminated their involvement in treatment, n = 165) and the ‘Treatment Completer’ group (those successfully completing treatment, n = 217). To allow for triangulation of offences that were dealt with through the youth and adult justice system’s recidivism data were collected from multiple sources (Child, Youth and Family , Youth Court, and Police criminal charges and convictions data). Post-treatment sexual, general (nonsexual and non-violent) and violent recidivism are reported from each data source as well as overall sexual, general and violent recidivism. Sexual, general and violent re-offending that occurred while the children and youths were attending treatment are also presented. Changes in behavioural problems and the psychological functioning of sexually abusive children and youth between assessment and the end of treatment (as assessed by the Child Behavior Checklist, Youth Self Report and Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory) contribute additional outcome measures. This naturalistic outcome study found that the treatment programmes were effective in reducing sexual recidivism amongst sexually abusive children and youth who completed treatment compared with those who did not complete treatment. Less than 3% (2.8%, n = 8) of Treatment Completers sexually re-offended compared with 6% (n = 17) of the Comparison group and 10% (n = 16) of the Treatment Dropout group. Treatment Dropouts were found to be at highest risk of sexual, general and violent recidivism. Recidivism for the three special populations (children, females and ‘special needs’ youth) are also presented. The results from the psychological measures indicate a general pattern of reduction in behavioural and psychological problems between assessment and end of treatment. Logistic regression analysis was used in Study Three (N = 682) to explore factors associated with the risk of sexual and nonsexual (violent and general offending) re-offending post-treatment and dropping out of treatment. The factor predictive of sexual recidivism risk was having three or more victims and was associated with a decreased risk of sexual recidivism. Older age at first known sexual offence was associated with increased chance of nonsexual recidivism. Dropping out of treatment and having a history of nonsexual offending were associated with a decreased risk of nonsexual recidivism. Older age at referral and having no external mandate to attend treatment were associated with increased risk of youth dropping out of treatment. A history of mental health problems was associated with a decreased risk of treatment dropout. Conclusions This is the first study of the characteristics and treatment outcomes of sexually abusive children and youth in New Zealand. Its strengths include the large sample size, length of the follow-up period, use of a comparison group and data triangulation to determine recidivism. This study, therefore, compares favourably with international studies. This research enhances understanding of the individual, family and offending characteristics of sexually abusive youth in New Zealand as well as children, females and special needs youth. The Cognitive Behavioural Theory (CBT) based approach of the community programmes in New Zealand was found to be effective in reducing recidivism amongst children and youths who completed treatment. Specific recommendations relevant to treatment programmes and statutory agencies around programme development, referral processes and identification of sexually abusive children and youth are made. Directions for future research are also discussed. These include research exploring outcomes, other than recidivism, for those attending the Maori programmes, possible exploration of typologies within New Zealand sexually abusive children and youth, and subsequent follow-up research. / University of Auckland Doctoral Scholarship

This study addresses the hitherto limited research on sexually abusive children and youths in New Zealand (NZ). It encompasses children (12 years or younger) and youths (13 to 19 years) referred to the three largest specialised community sexual offender treatment programmes in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch over a 9½ year period. Additionally, three special populations are considered: female sexually abusive youth, youth with ‘special needs’ and children (12 years and under). To increase our understanding of the individual, offending and family characteristics of these children and youths in specialised community treatment programmes in New Zealand Study One audited client’s clinical files (N = 702). Consistent with international research, New Zealand children and youth who engaged in sexually abusive behaviours not only presented with sexually abusive behaviour(s) but also had other psychological and behavioural issues. These included a history of childhood sexual and physical abuse (38%, n = 263 and 39%, n = 272 respectively), behavioural (63%, n = 442) and mental health problems (65%, n = 457), drug and alcohol misuse (22%, n = 156) and a history of suicide ideation or deliberate self-harm (27%, n = 187). They often had poor social skills (46%, n = 326) and had struggled to establish appropriate peer relationships (44%, n = 306). Many of the children and youth came from multi-problem and chaotic family backgrounds (e.g., 55%, n = 387 of parents were divorced or separated, 38%, n = 267 were exposed to domestic violence and 32%, n = 222 had family member(s) with a substance abuse problem) and had experienced numerous out-of-home placements (57%, n = 389). Factors associated with resiliency were also investigated. It was found that children and youth primarily victimised male and female children (12 years or younger) (70%, n = 1407), who were acquaintances (57%, n = 1295) or relatives (32%, n = 730). Very few victimised strangers (7%, n = 86 of victims were strangers). They engaged in both ‘hands on’ (e.g., penetrative acts) and ‘hands off’ offences (e.g., voyeurism). Study Two was a naturalistic treatment outcome study to explore treatment outcomes and involved 682 sexually abusive children and youth who attended three specialised community treatment programmes in New Zealand. The main outcome of interest was sexual recidivism (prevalence rate of re-offending during the follow-up period) with secondary outcome variables of general and violent recidivism. The follow-up period ranged from 1 year to 10 years (mean 4.5 years, SD = 2.2). Three groups were compared: the ‘Comparison’ group (referral or assessment only, n = 300), ‘Treatment Dropout’ group (those who prematurely terminated their involvement in treatment, n = 165) and the ‘Treatment Completer’ group (those successfully completing treatment, n = 217). To allow for triangulation of offences that were dealt with through the youth and adult justice system’s recidivism data were collected from multiple sources (Child, Youth and Family , Youth Court, and Police criminal charges and convictions data). Post-treatment sexual, general (nonsexual and non-violent) and violent recidivism are reported from each data source as well as overall sexual, general and violent recidivism. Sexual, general and violent re-offending that occurred while the children and youths were attending treatment are also presented. Changes in behavioural problems and the psychological functioning of sexually abusive children and youth between assessment and the end of treatment (as assessed by the Child Behavior Checklist, Youth Self Report and Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory) contribute additional outcome measures. This naturalistic outcome study found that the treatment programmes were effective in reducing sexual recidivism amongst sexually abusive children and youth who completed treatment compared with those who did not complete treatment. Less than 3% (2.8%, n = 8) of Treatment Completers sexually re-offended compared with 6% (n = 17) of the Comparison group and 10% (n = 16) of the Treatment Dropout group. Treatment Dropouts were found to be at highest risk of sexual, general and violent recidivism. Recidivism for the three special populations (children, females and ‘special needs’ youth) are also presented. The results from the psychological measures indicate a general pattern of reduction in behavioural and psychological problems between assessment and end of treatment. Logistic regression analysis was used in Study Three (N = 682) to explore factors associated with the risk of sexual and nonsexual (violent and general offending) re-offending post-treatment and dropping out of treatment. The factor predictive of sexual recidivism risk was having three or more victims and was associated with a decreased risk of sexual recidivism. Older age at first known sexual offence was associated with increased chance of nonsexual recidivism. Dropping out of treatment and having a history of nonsexual offending were associated with a decreased risk of nonsexual recidivism. Older age at referral and having no external mandate to attend treatment were associated with increased risk of youth dropping out of treatment. A history of mental health problems was associated with a decreased risk of treatment dropout. Conclusions This is the first study of the characteristics and treatment outcomes of sexually abusive children and youth in New Zealand. Its strengths include the large sample size, length of the follow-up period, use of a comparison group and data triangulation to determine recidivism. This study, therefore, compares favourably with international studies. This research enhances understanding of the individual, family and offending characteristics of sexually abusive youth in New Zealand as well as children, females and special needs youth. The Cognitive Behavioural Theory (CBT) based approach of the community programmes in New Zealand was found to be effective in reducing recidivism amongst children and youths who completed treatment. Specific recommendations relevant to treatment programmes and statutory agencies around programme development, referral processes and identification of sexually abusive children and youth are made. Directions for future research are also discussed. These include research exploring outcomes, other than recidivism, for those attending the Maori programmes, possible exploration of typologies within New Zealand sexually abusive children and youth, and subsequent follow-up research. / University of Auckland Doctoral Scholarship

The central aim of this descriptive and exploratory study is to empirically examine the views and perspectives of practitioners working with young people in the youth justice system in England and Wales. Based on a case study of Peterborough youth offending service (PYOS), the study adopts a multi-method approach. Interviews with 22 practitioners, observations of their practice and key documentary evidence are reviewed, which identify the processes involved in the core practice of key practitioners and a deeper understanding of how policy and legislation reform are experienced in practice. Practitioners play key roles as case managers in the intervention process, yet youth justice literature somewhat neglects the role and perspective of staff within multi-agency youth offending teams (Case, 2007), despite increasing focus on youth justice practice through organisational analyses (see for example, Burnett and Appleton, 2002; 2004a; Field, 2007; Holdaway et al., 2001; Newburn et al., 2002; Souhami, 2007; Stahlkopf, 2008), and much critique of youth justice policy in England and Wales (see for example, Goldson, 2002; Goldson and Muncie, 2006; Pitts, 2003; Smith, 2007). The central argument of this thesis is that knowledge (what is known about effective practice) is not applied effectively in practice. Questions are raised regarding the use of professional discretion and the accountability of practitioners working with young offenders within a perceived managerialist process which neglects individuals needs in favour of achieving targets and performance measures. The findings of this study support the view that the use of standardised assessment tools increase accountability of practitioners whilst reducing their professional discretion, which constrains practice. A lack of structural support created a cultural divide between management and practitioners, which further confounded their practice. Practitioners face a multitude of obstructions to their work with young people, which seem to be further rooted in the prioritisation of recording information and meeting targets, which results in less time attributed to planning and delivering interventions. In a climate of uncertainty for the youth offending service (YOS), in which doubts about its future are frequently raised and further reductions are made to YOS budgets, there is increased need for well-informed and supported practitioners to be working with young people who offend.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Relationships among neighbors contribute to the well-being and outcomes of all who live within a neighborhood. Existing literature provides us with a wealth of information on individual seniors’ isolation but does not seem to consider how neighborhood factors add to the attachment of seniors. Given the increasing number of seniors in our society who have the ability to remain living in their neighborhoods as they age, this study focuses on understanding neighborhood attachment to seniors living in the community. Furthermore, emphasis was placed on the potential impact that senior attachment could have on youth as one subset life stage who reside in a neighborhood. This thesis describes the characteristics of neighborhoods that foster low, normal, and high levels of senior attachment in urban areas and explores the relationship this attachment has to neighborhood youth outcomes. This research opens the door for other scholars to begin to place greater emphasis on the understanding of neighborhood dynamics, intergenerational ties to seniors, and the well being of residents across the life course.