A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Arts in fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Music at the University of Zululand, 2005. / This document on umaskandi is about a vocal musical style that was created and nurtured by the Zulu people. Externally and, at a distance, the style may not appear to be artistically captivating, praiseworthy, and linguistically significant. It is but only on closer scrutiny that the aesthetic worth of the music can be realized. Even then, without a considerable research into a sizeable amount of the people's arts in relation to their life activities, a casual listener may not identify any worthiness in the practice of umaskandi music. This is generally the case with all the music of Africa. The music is contained in the life activities of the people. Having discovered the entertaining element in the music, a serious listener will still be faced with the greater challenges of fathoming the organization of sound, the significance of the libretto and the physical execution, in relation to the lifestyles of the performers. The sound of the music, the observed rhythmic activity of the performers, and the language of the libretto and its elocution are only the surface of the activity. There is still, but, more signification in the unsaid source of the music. The reason for the neglect of this music style by Western cultures and by some modern local indigenous Africans, was not a mere oversight, but a result of stigmatization of all African arts by Europeans, whose intention was to dominate the whole of Africa. They would not succeed in managing the people dictatorially without destroying the latter's culture- For some time, therefore, because of such pressures and the demands of the culture of cities, and missionary education, the Westerners were able to 'convert' some Africans against their own (African) culture. Such attempts to 'Europeanize' Africans took place wherever there were European settlers on African soil. But, because of the breadth of the continent, they could not cover the whole surface of the country. Even amongst those that were reached, like the Zulus, there were always people who were not willing to abandon their indigenous heritage. Many were unbending and insisted on maintaining their traditional arts and cultures. It was from such a cultural attitude and disposition that umaskandi idiom was born. The coming in of democratic rule in South Africa has, however, restored the dignity of every human culture in the country. Therefore, all nationalities are free to practise their various cultures with firmness and self-assurance. This attitude lent more confidence to those that performed umaskandi music. It took some time before 'sophisticated' Africans could appreciate the sound and movement in performance of umaskandi performance style. The other nationalities took a little longer. Up to this day, those that have not been orientated in the language of the performers have not grasped the essence in umaskandi music, because of the social contextual nature of the music. Should a form of prejudice against indigenous African languages be sustained, ignorance about the life and thought patterns of Africans shall grow. This will be a drawback for the South African people as a whole. This phenomenon is worthy of mention because the propagation of isiZulu is getting threatened in many ways. First: There is a big population of Zulu and non-Zulu learners that do not receive tuition of their vernacular because some school managers are negative towards African languages. Secondly: Umaskandi musicians, who are the custodians of isiZulu language and culture, and other Zulu artistes, shall never be comprehended if the language is ignored. So, for those unfortunate learners who do not have isiZulu in their curriculum, the doors are closed on both sides. Since they are not given tuition in the classroom, they are most likely to develop a negative attitude towards the language, which would be a great disaster. In their schooling career, they will also miss the further * education through music' that is provided by Zulu music practitioners at large. Umaskandi musicians, who are speakers of isiZulu language, are in their own way, keepers and propagators of isiZulu culture. Their instruments are tuned in isiZulu style, which is their own instrumental creation bashed on their singing style. Their libretto is in isiZulu. They are historians of isiZulu life and its relevant culture of yesteryear. This will be missed. Umaskandi concept, which embraces the isiZulu instrumental tuning, isiZulu manner of dancing, isiZulu vocal harmony and isiZulu elocution of izibongo (praise poetry) , originated in the indigenous lives of the Zulu people. These people were so solid in their belief and practice that they clang tenaciously onto their culture even when they were exposed to a conglomeration of foreign cultures in the horrible mining environment. Umaskandi concept, therefore, had an effect on the people's behaviour. When the African indigenous people came across the new musical instrumentation at their disposal, they adapted the latter and used them to become an extension of their vocal styles. When conditions in the mines were depressing, degrading and debasing, they painfully sang of the good life that they had left behind in their indigenous homes. Through this umaskandi style, they have, therefore, been able to relate a people's history. The final question in the last chapter is whether umaskandi concept can be a method of education in the performance of instruments just as tonic solfa is a method of vocal music. The question can be extended further to inquire whether umaskandi concept can be a method of moral and cul tural determination and perseverance as it has been the case with Zulu musicians.

Amahubo songs are at the centre of the traditional Zulu cultural, religious and political lives. Their age is often associated with the very "beginning" of things, when the very first Zulu people emerged from the bed of reeds. As musical items amahubo tend to be easily associated with the old, pre-colonial era when Zulus were in charge of their lives and their destinies. The performance contexts of amahubo songs are the wedding, the funeral of a King, Chief, induna, umnurnzane, war and other commemorative ceremonies. Amahubo are also called ceremonial music because of their association with the ceremonial. Ritual and symbolism dominate amahubo performance contexts, amahubo themselves being symbols that stand for other ideas. It is noteworthy that despite missionary and colonial propaganda against traditional Zulu music and culture, amahubo continue to survive and are still performed at clan, regional and Zulu 'national' levels. In addition, there has emerged new syncretic styles which demonstrate the fusion of Zulu and Western (hymnal) musical ideas. From time to time the new musical styles emphasize a Zulu identity which makes them to be mostly symbolically associated with or related to amahubo songs. Today, amahubo and seven modern Zulu musical style can easily express a broad statement of the Zulu ethnic entity of ,some seven to eight million individuals. All these musical styles, when claimed by Zulus draw "imaginary borders" between Zulus and non-Zulus and get referred to as Zulu (ethnic or 'national') music. such references, however, are situational. The period 1988 - 1992 in which research was conducted culminating in this thesis has been marked by Zulu ethnic resurgence characterized by the performance of amahubo songs and other modern styles of religious, choral, wedding, mbhaganga, maskanda and isicathamiya, all of which, through manipulation of text and musical sounds, get situationally claimed for the Zulu ethnic (national) identity. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1992.

No abstract available. / Thesis (M.Mus.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2000.

No abstract available / Thesis B.A.(Hons)-University of Natal, 1983.

This thesis is a detailed biographical review of Brother Clement Sithole's life (1). This thesis traces Brother Clement's musical development, his acquisition of indigenous musical knowledge, and his application of this knowledge to his present experience. The purpose behind my enquiry is to further understand the relationship between historical musical practices and the present world experienced by the individual. What is the impact of past indigenous musical performance on the performer? Is indigenous musical performance an effective way for displaced people to alleviate alienation and disjuncture? What problems, complications, and contradictions are encountered by an individual when they attempt to use past musical practices to express their contemporary experience? The thesis is divided into six chapters. Chapter One is a general introduction to the Master's project. Chapter Two highlights Brother Clement's early years, and presents discussions related to the musical practices and cultural ideas acquired during this period. Certain childhood events are analyzed for the impact of these events on Brother Clement's later development. Chapter Three concerns Brother Clement's religious vocation and his liturgical compositions. Brother Clement has composed a number of religious songs for the umakhweyana bow and choral songs for Catholic Mass. In his compositions, he combines the text of the Catholic liturgy with indigenous Zulu musical styles. I discuss how indigenous Zulu music has assisted Brother Clement to create a sense of individuality, place, and belonging within the context of the Catholic community. In addition, I analyze how these compositions have brought a sense of continuity to his life through easing the tension between his commitments to the Catholic Church on the one hand, and to Zulu culture on the other. I also discuss some of the problems, and complications, which Brother Clement encountered when he attempted to introduce these indigenous musical styles to the context of the Catholic Church. In Chapter Four Brother Clement's work as a caregiver within his community is introduced. In the late 1980's, he opened a children's home to cater for needy children from the Vryheid area. Brother Clement is fully responsible for these children. In the home, the children practice and perform indigenous music on a regular basis. Brother Clement has named all of his musical work, including the children's home "Inyoni Kayiphumuli" which translates from isiZulu as "the bird that does not rest." The name is descriptive of his work within the abbey as a monk, and his continuous effort to transmit indigenous Zulu music and heritage to the youth. I focus on the impact of Brother Clement's work, and of the indigenous musical practice on the children from the Inyoni Kayiphumuli Children's Home. I analyze the relationship between the performance of past indigenous Zulu music and the introduction of certain moral values to the youth, and examine the relevance of these values in the context of contemporary South African society, in particular the national HIV/AIDS epidemic. Chapter Five provides a self-reflexive account of the creation of the accompanying video anthology. I discuss the relevance of video documentation in ethnomusicological study and analyze the relationship between the video and the written text presented in the thesis. Chapter Six serves as a conclusion to the thesis and presents an analytical summary of the project outcomes. I highlight the significance of this project and make some suggestions for future scholars undertaking similar research. (1) In this thesis, I use the name Mpimbili when referring to Brother Clement Sithole's formative years, since this is the name given to him at birth. In 1956, Mpimbili was baptized and his name changed to Albert, therefore when referring to these years I use the name Albert. In 1965, Albert takes his first vows as Benedictine brother, and his name changes to Brother Clement. Following this final name change I use his current name, which is Brother Clement. / Thesis (M.A.-Music)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2005.

This research on the subject is one of a few written in the medium of isiZulu. Further, it is one of the few conducted on masikandi music in this depth. It identifies and analyzes strategies used by Zulu masikandis in their music. The researcher in this study demonstrated that Zulu masikandis comprise males and females and that at present male masikandis are dominating this genre. Besides that, the study also revealed two categories of Zulu masikandis: those who recorded their music and those who could not. The researcher demonstrated also that Zulu masikandis use different effective strategies for different purposes in their music. He demonstrated that Zulu masikandis use different strategies to introduce themselves to their followers and their counterparts, to brag about certain members of their groups, to coin and use nicknames, to reveal their themes, to reveal their emotions, to use various types of imagery and to use strategies which are the results of influences of factors like Christianity, riddles, folktales and praise-poems. Some of the challenges are that other masikandis find it very difficult to record their music owing to financial problems, other producers are corrupt, as masikandis are influential figures in public there is a danger that they can mislead the public by coining and spreading unstandardized Zulu expressions through their songs. Finally, it must be pointed out that the study of masikandi music, particularly strategies used by Zulu masikandis, makes a great contribution to the study of literature. The reason is that it introduces a new path, the different strategies used by Zulu masikandis in their music, categories of Zulu masikandis, nicknames for Zulu masikandis which are coined by themselves and sometimes by members of the public and different methods of collecting data to be used by other researchers. Therefore, it is worthy of publication. / African Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (African Languages)

Text in English / The research raises concern for the practical and theoretical problems confronting pre-primary to secondary schools regarding the implementation of indigenous African music in the present curriculum. This research investigates the status of indigenous African music in the South African school’s curriculum for the purposes of its inclusion with special reference to isiZulu. The study utilised qualitative interview, observation method and existing documents for the collection of data. Participants were asked to highlight the importance of including indigenous African music in the present curriculum as a core subject, and secondly, what can be done to promote indigenous African music to South African communities? This study records the importance of isiZulu belief systems, customs and performance tradition. It looks at indigenous isiZulu music both past and present, what it offers to the community of South Africans. The research reveals that isiZulu music can be used to recall enjoyable commemorations, express peace, and happiness and motivates team spirit as it can organise activities geared towards community development if included in the school curriculum. It also nurtures social integration, which can enhance understanding in learning. Some songs are composed to instil socio-cultural values in establishing social relationships amongst the individuals and societies, also consolidate social bonds and create patriotic feelings. Music also contributes to the child’s development and psychological abilities. The study further revealed that the battle for the soul of African Languages is not yet over. Rather than the languages becoming increasingly appreciated and embraced by the owners, there is evidently a decline (Salawu, 2001). This worrisome decline is marked by the advancement of technology and craves modernity; they see everything (culture, indigenous African music and language) as primitive. It is apparent that the originality and excellence in African culture and languages are quickly vanishing, as there remains only a small indication of that genuine tradition. The study therefore, helps Black South Africans generally to relate to their folk-lore and to maintain their cultural principles, values and rebuild their sense of national identity and will also work to broaden the curriculum in schools from Foundation Phase to the FET Phase. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Phil. (Languages, Linguistics and Literature)

This research on the subject is one of a few written in the medium of isiZulu. Further, it is one of the few conducted on masikandi music in this depth. It identifies and analyzes strategies used by Zulu masikandis in their music. The researcher in this study demonstrated that Zulu masikandis comprise males and females and that at present male masikandis are dominating this genre. Besides that, the study also revealed two categories of Zulu masikandis: those who recorded their music and those who could not. The researcher demonstrated also that Zulu masikandis use different effective strategies for different purposes in their music. He demonstrated that Zulu masikandis use different strategies to introduce themselves to their followers and their counterparts, to brag about certain members of their groups, to coin and use nicknames, to reveal their themes, to reveal their emotions, to use various types of imagery and to use strategies which are the results of influences of factors like Christianity, riddles, folktales and praise-poems. Some of the challenges are that other masikandis find it very difficult to record their music owing to financial problems, other producers are corrupt, as masikandis are influential figures in public there is a danger that they can mislead the public by coining and spreading unstandardized Zulu expressions through their songs. Finally, it must be pointed out that the study of masikandi music, particularly strategies used by Zulu masikandis, makes a great contribution to the study of literature. The reason is that it introduces a new path, the different strategies used by Zulu masikandis in their music, categories of Zulu masikandis, nicknames for Zulu masikandis which are coined by themselves and sometimes by members of the public and different methods of collecting data to be used by other researchers. Therefore, it is worthy of publication. / African Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (African Languages)