This study analyzed outcomes of an enhanced cognitive-behavioral intervention with dually diagnosed severely mentally ill adults. It specifically addressed the improvement of attitudes, skills, self-efficacy to use condoms and the heightening of condom use. The data were analyzed via a randomized three-group repeated measures design composed of the experimental (E-CB), standard care (SC) comparison or a no-treatment control condition as the between-subjects variable and pre-post measure as the within-subjects variable. The ECB focused on cooperative, application, hands-on, skill-building and role-playing activities for sexual assertiveness, negotiation in risk-taking and proper condom use. The SC comparison, was didactic in its approach and addressed risk- taking and proper condom use in one session, but did not involve application approaches to problem-solving risky situations or condom use. Multiple assessments were conducted at pre-, post- and six months post-intervention. The analysis indicated that the E-CB intervention led to more favorable attitudes toward condoms and to improved and maintained skills regarding their use by participants six months after the intervention compared to the standard care and control groups. No significant improvements in self-efficacy were found. A repeated measures ANOVA conducted on the transformed values of percentage of vaginal condom use indicated no significant differences between the experimental and standard care conditions but both had a significantly higher mean percentage vaginal condom use than the control group, averaged across pre- and six-month post-intervention. No gender differences were seen in attitudes, skills or self-efficacy to use condoms. This study shed light upon the effectiveness of the instructional approach for the enhancement of attitudes, skills and self-efficacy outcomes related to HIV prevention. For heightened effectiveness, future approaches must address multiple factors impacting learning in this population.

As the population of the United States becomes more diverse and the immigrant Hispanic, limited English proficient (LEP) school age population continues to grow, understanding and addressing the needs of these students becomes a pressing question. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of group counseling, by a bilingual counselor, on the self- esteem, attendance and counselor utilization of Hispanic LEP high school students. The design for this study was a quasi-experimental design. The experimental and control groups consisted of one class from each of the four levels of English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL), I-IV. The counseling intervention, the independent variable, was delivered by a bilingual counselor once a week, for fifteen weeks. A total of 112 immigrant Hispanic LEP students selected from the total ESOL student population participated in the study. The experimental and control groups were administered the Culture Free Self Esteem Inventory (CFSBI) Form AD as a pretest and posttest. The Background Information Questionnaire (BIQ) was utilized to gather information on counselor utilization and demographic data. Attendance data were obtained from the students' computer records. At the conclusion of the study the differences between the experimental and control groups on the three dependent variables were compared. Statistical analyses of the data were done using SPSS statistical software. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was utilized to determine if there were significant differences in the self-esteem scores, attendance and counselor utilization. Correlational analyses was utilized to determine if there was a relationship between English language proficiency and self-esteem and between acculturation level and self-esteem. The study results indicate that there were no significant differences in the self-esteem scores and attendance of the subjects in the experimental group at the completion of the group counseling treatment. Counselor utilization was statistically significant for the targeted population. A relationship was found between English language proficiency level and self-esteem scores for students in ESOL levels II, III and IV. No significant correlation was found between acculturation and self-esteem. Research on the dropout rates of LEP coupled with the results of this study show that students at the intermediate and advanced levels of ESOL (III and IV) exhibit more positive self-esteem and achieve higher graduation rates that levels I and II. LEP students at levels I and II, once they became familiar with the role and function of school counselors through group counseling, utilized their services.

In this dissertation, I offer a theoretical concept to guide educational program development during refugee transition. The premise behind the concept is that women, as a category of people, routinely experience wide-ranging, often culturally sanctioned, forms of violence and discrimination. In 1995, one in every 130 people in the world are refugees and displacees. Of these, 80 percent are women and their dependents (Women's Commission, 1993). I suggest that a point of entry to combat female-directed injustice is during the time of greatest cultural disruption in the refugee experience. Three factors build together to create this potential. Most refugees migrate from a "developing" country to a "developing" country. A comparison of the global pattern of refugee migration and the pattern of female illiteracy indicate a marked correspondence. Coupled with the fact that most refugees are female, the first factor is that the typical refugee will be a female with a history of unequal access to education. The second factor is that during refugee transition, which I define as the times of greatest cultural disruption in the refugee experience, traditional norms are in flux. The refugee is propelled into places where traditional patterns of social interaction are ruptured and not yet reestablished. In this environment of basic survival, a woman performs roles shaped by necessity rather than the social norms of her home culture. The third factor is that during refugee transition women cross traditional gender roles. Research indicates that women may actually "gain" from refugee flight. The new environments call upon women to expand beyond traditionally restrictive roles to develop a wider, and more influential, range of public skills and responsibilities. I suggest that the convergence of these factors during refugee transition creates a potentially rich, and unusual, learning environment for women. For further analysis, the concept is applied to a case study of Iranian refugees in Turkey.

This dissertation examines the general problem of how one comes to know culturally distinct patterns of communication. Building on earlier cultural pragmatic work that is both derivative of, and informed by Dell Hymes' (“Models”) assumptive base in thinking about communication as systematic, social, and culturally distinct, this study examines the Finnish term asia [matter-of-fact] as a cultural term for talk. This study asks: how do participants conceive and identify through the asia term, and enact their world of communication? Through applying the terms for talk framework (Carbaugh, “Fifty”) this study is organized generally to explore reports and enactments of communication practice in some Finnish adult education scenes. This is done through an examination of nonverbal acts, norms, ritual, and a vacillating form. This study proceeds to examine “listenership” in which a set of nonverbal acts such as keeping the face straight, minimal gestures, and maintaining a diverted or shifted gaze are acts deemed proper conduct to the asia [matter-at-hand]. Speech deemed to be of the asia style must be direct, factual, goal-directed, controlled and unemotional, and not be “personal face” but “informational face.” Asia talk as a sequence of acts and its ritualized event structure show infocentrism to be the sacred principle celebrated in asia talk. Central findings of this dissertation point to infocentrism as a Finnish culturally based (a) relational code with a preference for an informational face, (b) idea of clearness where persons are motivated to understand, (c) an aesthetic of simplicity in expression describing the necessary degree of performability in speech. Two models for identifying are found in a vacillating form, one infocentric, and the other personalistic. The principle finding shows how asia, as a Finnish cultural term for talk, constructs a sense of infocentric communication, sociality, and personhood that, in some educational scenes, places informational concerns over, and against, personalistic and expressive concerns. Through a comparative examination of other cultures we see how cultural terms for talk enter as resources for understanding cultural variability in communication conduct. This study further points to how educators and students can be prepared for studies abroad or teaching in multicultural contexts.

The “Computers for KlutzesSM” computer literacy course developed by this author and successfully used for teaching more than 500 older and many impaired adults during the past five years is the basis for this dissertation. Educational literature about how best to teach the returning adult and several prominent theories such as constructivism and Vygotskyism are examined for helpful ideas. Because this literature and these theories were formulated for students much younger than those to be taught during the research newer theories were clearly needed. The literature research revealed that the educational community's returning adult's average age seemed to be in the 30 to 40 year range. People in this age range are well below the chronological age for the subjects of this dissertation. A wealth of research has been performed at the behest of the National Institute on Aging (NIA) on individual traits e.g. dynamic and static memory, motor skills, and type face preference. Only since the early 1990s has in-depth research on our aging population been performed. This research was used as a guide on how best to teach the aging adult. This writer prepared special texts and materials that closely follow the NIA findings, more recent educational papers, and news articles. The results of this research prove the value of applying both the psychological research as performed for NIA and the educational research done by the educational community. Student and instructor evaluations of these special learning materials, special teaching methods, and learning environment reveal the usefulness of this wealth of information. In all cases, the students, when motivated to accept the instructions became capable of working with a computer. Tables of characteristics help one to classify the placement of individuals into one of the three levels of literacy needs.

This dissertation is based on a qualitative case study of four adults who attend a literacy center where they are learning to read and write better. My primary goal was to investigate how newly literate adults use writing to articulate their relationships to dominant ideologies of literacy. I examined the possibility that different kinds of agency might be enacted within and outside of dominant literacy narratives. The study was conducted at the Read/Write/Now Adult Learning Center. Participants represented a range of learners from various experiences who had been in the program for differing lengths of time. Methods of narrative inquiry were used to collect and analyze data, including: observation of classes, interviews with teachers, extensive interviews with case study members, and collection of all writing produced by participants during their time at the center. Participants' remarks and writing demonstrated that they articulate four dominant literacy narratives: functionality, economic gain, an ethic of self-improvement, and citizenship---having a voice in culture. My analysis revealed that people did not express just one narrative; they expressed as many as four narratives simultaneously. Participants' interview transcripts and writing suggested that they already have the critical awareness theorists believe they must be taught. As they increase their literacy, participants articulate four alternative literacy narratives: naming power, particularly in regard to "illiteracy" as a social violence; critiquing material conditions that have forced them into oppressive subject positions; expressing pleasure as exceeding the range of dominant narratives; and enacting critical citizenry by repositioning themselves as resistors. This study suggests that writing can be a more radical act than speech because people can speak back to culture as well as reach out to affect multiple audiences. Through writing, people can be critical and become activists by circulating their texts publicly. They can critique, analyze, and rework situations. I submit that writing fosters a specific form of agency that people create through their interaction with text---textual agency. Writing offers the potential for self-transformation and social-transformation. The writing process enables people in the study to: alter their subject position, affect others, and circulate texts among various audiences.

The increasing demand for educational opportunities by retirement-age adults presents the need for a better understanding of the significance of these programs on the lives of older adults. The literature provides a broad demographic profile of the older learner, but lacks a deeper understanding of the motivations for participating in educational programs and the resulting experiences. The purpose of this study is to determine what is meaningful to older adults about the Learning in Retirement Institute (LRI) experience, a particular model of older adult education. Through the use of in-depth, phenomenological interviewing, four members of Learning in Retirement Institutes share their life experiences and how they came to join the institutes. They reflect about what the LRI experience means to them at this point in their lives. The results concur with prior research in that the four participants fit the demographic profile and exhibit the two primary motivators of desire for intellectual stimulation and social contact. The significance of this study is the identification of additional benefits to participation in a Learning in Retirement Institute that include personal growth, increased self-esteem, opportunity for contribution, and empowerment. This combination of benefits makes the LRI experience unique from other activities in which older people can participate, including other educational programs such as tuition-free college courses and Elderhostel. This study provides a rare opportunity to gain first-hand perceptions of older adults regarding their lives and experiences in an LRI. It also demonstrates that, while not representing every old person, these four older people, through their desire to grow and contribute, defy the stereotype of all old people as in decline, dependent, and unproductive and that participation in Learning in Retirement Institutes plays a role in the successful aging of these four older people.

The purpose of this research was to investigate the education and training of retail managers through management training programs in three apparel retail organizations and to inform educators and retailers about recommended retail management training practices in order to better prepare their students and employees. Methodology was based on qualitative research, using the multiple-case study method, with an open-ended questionnaire type of interview. Interviews of apparel retail managers and trainers gave insights into the objectives of the study. These objectives were to review: (a) the content of education and management training programs used by three apparel retailers, (b) the training methods, (c) the assessment tools, and (d) the evaluation techniques used in those training programs. The findings show that, since the restructuring of the selected companies during 1995 and 1996, overall educational reimbursement had decreased. Training programs used both on-the-job and classroom methods, and were conducted primarily in stores. Managers were responsible for most of the training. Participants of the study perceived the goals of their company's management training to be profit, managerial continuity, employee development, and career or self-improvement related. Assessment tools varied, with observational techniques, examinations, self-evaluations, and reviews reported. Participants commented on the lack of overall program evaluation, training consistency, and communication. Conclusions of the study indicate that apparel retail management training content was limited in technological advances and had little content pertaining to the changing demographics of employees. Methods and assessment tools used in training were conducive to learning. Program goals and objectives were not always clearly defined. Evaluations of the overall effectiveness of a training program were rarely conducted. Recommendations to retailers and educators were to: (a) update programs to meet the technological and human relation needs of a changing retail environment, (b) consider all company employees as potential trainers, (c) utilize different assessment techniques and methods of teaching, (d) standardize and evaluate training programs, (e) improve communication among retail company personnel, and (f) continue to develop curricula that include communication, feedback and assessment techniques, and field practica.

The American educational system has come under fire in the last several years. At the national level, new laws have been enacted which have helped fund innovative educational programs. Consequently, the individual states have responded with sweeping educational reform laws to revamp their educational systems and improve student learning. In 1992–93, in an effort to improve education and the preparation of teachers, Massachusetts opted to review and examine teacher education programs. Upon the review of these programs and the students' scores in standardized tests, Massachusetts created and passed legislation for educational reform. The Massachusetts Education Reform Act of 1993 (MERA) was passed and new standards were developed for the education of students, the preparation of teachers, and the roles played by the schools, the administrators, and all of the other personnel within the public school system. This study addresses the edicts of the Massachusetts Education Reform Act of 1993 that deal with the recertification of teachers and their professional development. For this study, the Delphi method was used to gain a perspective on developing standards to assess quality of professional development programs as they are presently delivered. The results have been subjected to a factor analysis that yielded four factors: Impact of Professional Development Programs in Teaching; Evaluation and Follow-up of Professional Development Programs; Worth/Accountability of Professional Development Programs; and Motivators for Effective Professional Development Programs. These factors should be considered when assessing quality of professional development programs.

Current policy statements concerning adult literacy in Guatemala state that Mayan women need literacy skills in order to better themselves and their families socially and economically and need to possess these tools and skills in order to participate in the emerging civil society. Responding to this rhetoric, and a chance to win funding, organizations that design and develop literacy programming have responded with adult literacy “classes” that focus on a single model of literacy learning for women that tends to be equated to a school model of basic education. Central to this single model for literacy learning, is a single conception of literacy, as a unified, quantifiable easily attainable goal. This reductionist tendency in Guatemala has led to focusing on a single literacy as the solution to the problem of indigenous women's illiteracy. Assumptions about the needs and desires of beneficiaries are made by literacy experts and planners without taking the time to understand the literacy practices that Mayan women and communities are already engaged in. Examining and analyzing the literacy and numeracy practices women are already engaged in is a very different approach to program planning than the hegemonic centralism of the more traditional autonomous model. By using ethnographic methods to conduct literacy research, a potentially empowering model for literacy programming can emerge that is sensitive to local context and needs. The following guidelines resulted from this study: It cannot be assumed (1) that programs designed for literacy acquisition are in the best educational or social interests of the target audience; (2) that “best practices” of teaching and learning developed and advocated by Western educators and planners are the most effective and successful in all contexts. Whole language approaches or learner-generated materials may work in some contexts and not in others and we cannot simply impose “state of the art” approaches in all contexts and expect them to work well. Any sustainable, meaningful literacy intervention in Guatemala would best be conceptualized as a long-term process that helps to establish an intergenerational network of communicative relationships that focus on the social, cultural, economic and linguistic processes of communities.