Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a human disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and it is one of the biggest social, economic and health challenges in the world. The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) and World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that between 33.4 to 46.0 million people around the world were living with HIV/AIDS in December 2005 and the highest estimates are in the Sub-Saharan Africa (around 25 million). In more developed countries a combined antiretroviral therapy called highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) is used, which results in reduced progression to AIDS in most patients. Despite the beneficial effects of HAART, significant side effects are experienced by treated patients. In addition, most infected people live in countries where the treatment is very expensive or, in many cases, not available at all. These people therefore rely on medicinal plants for health care. In this study, aqueous extracts from Sutherlandia frutescens and Lobostemon trigonus were screened for potential anti-HIV activities in a series of in vitro enzymatic assays, including reverse transcriptase, HIV-1 protease and glycohydrolases. Two extracts of Sutherlandia leaves (SFL-1 and SFL-2) were prepared that inhibited HIV reverse transcriptase and a Lobostemon leaf extract (LTL) was shown to also inhibit this enzyme. All extracts were assayed at 1.25mg/ml. Tannin content was determined for all active extracts using a tannic acid assay. SFL-1 and SFL-2 were found to contain about 6 percent and 7 percent tannins, respectively, and LTL contained 31% tannins by weight. Tannins were removed using polyamide columns and three fractions were collected for each. The extracts were also fractionated with Sephadex G-25, Amberlite IR 120 and Dowex 1-X8 as size exclusion, cation exchange and anion exchange, respectively. Extracts were also fractionated by preparative thin layer chromatography where two compounds were separated from S. frutescens extract with high activity against reverse transcriptase while showing insignificant inhibition towards other enzymes tested. SFL-BFW-10 and SFL-WEF-7 inhibited reverse transcriptase by almost 100 percent and the IC50 values calculated for these compounds were 0.34 and 0.23mg/ml, respectively. Cytotoxicity of these compounds was evaluated on Chang liver cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). None of these compounds showed any significant inhibition of cell proliferation. The purity of these compounds could not be confirmed because there was insufficient material to use in the techniques required to show purity and identification. Therefore, TLC was used to determine the nature of these compounds. SFL-BFW-10 was identified as an organic acid and SFL-WEF-7 was identified as flavonoid.

The rapid expansion of biofuel projects in southern Africa creates an opportune issue against which to examine land-use tradeoffs within the areas of customary land tenure. For this an ecosystems services approach is used. Jatropha curcas (L), a perennial oilseed plant which has been the key focus of most of the region’s biofuel expansion to date is used as the focus biofuel crop for which case study data were obtained from Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and South Africa. Despite the initial enthusiasm for jatropha, most projects have proven less successful than hoped, and many have collapsed. A few are, however, still showing signs of possible success and it is two of these that form the basis of the case studies. Hugely complex tradeoffs are involved when considering biofuel as a land-use option for communal areas. They range from global impacts such as biodiversity and global climate forcing, through national concerns of rural development, national food security and national fuel security, to local household concerns around improving livelihoods. Land that is converted to biofuel needs to be removed from some previous use, and in the southern African case it is typically woodlands and the multitude of services they provide, that suffer. The nature of the tradeoffs and the people affected change over the scale under consideration. For the local farmer it is only the local issues that are of concern, but national and global forces will change the policy environment and lead to new types of development such as biofuels. Change is inevitable, and in all developments there are likely to be both winners and losers. It is clear that the impacts arising from biofuel are situation dependent, and each community and location has unique social and environmental considerations that need to be taken into account. In the case of jatropha the final realised yield and the economic returns that this can generate, will be of critical importance and remain one of the main uncertainties. There are promising signs that under certain circumstances the balance of benefits from jatropha biofuel may be positive, but if implemented incorrectly or in the wrong place, there is extensive evidence of total project failure. It is clear that evidence-based data and assessment tools are needed to assist communities, developers and government departments to make sound decisions around biofuel (or other land-use based) development. A number of such tools are suggested in the thesis. Both the use of large-scale plantations or small-scale farmer centred projects have their advantages and disadvantages. It is probable that in the correct circumstances either can work. However, large-scale plantations can have huge negative social and environmental consequences if poorly implemented. Small-scale projects, though improving livelihoods, are unlikely to take the farmers out of poverty. Tradeoffs from any land-use change are inevitable. Empirical data on biofuel impacts on the environment and society are needed for the development of sound policy. A favourable policy environment can ensure that positive benefits from biofuel are obtained, whilst minimising negative impacts. To develop this policy means that southern African countries will have to clearly understand what they wish to achieve from biofuel, as well as having a clear understanding of impacts from biofuel implementation. Sound scientific knowledge needs to underpin this process. For instance governments may wish to increase the ratio of small-scale to large-scale plantation to increase the developmental benefits, ensure biofuel is used to promote national fuel security rather than being exported, or develop a medium-scale farming sector which can help move farmers out of poverty and assist in developing a market surplus of agricultural commodities. Analysing impacts from biofuel expansion is a complex and multi-dimensional problem and as such will require multi-criteria analysis tools to develop solutions. Global, national and local tradeoffs must all be considered. In addition a wide range of stakeholders are involved and participatory processes may be needed to capture their inputs. Tools to better analyse impacts, specifically at the local level are needed. These local results need to feed into national level economic assessments. The cost of biofuel introduction should be considered against the costs of not implementing biofuel, realising that doing nothing also has a cost and long-term impact. Third-party certification provides a useful tool for shifting costs of ensuring compliance with social and environmental legislation, from the state to biofuel companies. In addition ongoing monitoring and evaluation of existing projects is needed to learn from successes and failures, to identify unintended consequences, and to increase the resilience of projects, community livelihoods and the national economy. This will have to be supplemented with additional focused and ongoing research.

This study investigates the representations of women in advertisements featured in South African Cosmopolitan magazine published in 2004 so as to critically analyse the stereotypes of women it presents, the institutional mechanisms behind this and its implications for gender ‘constructions’. By using a random cluster sample, 60 advertisements found in Cosmopolitan were analysed to examine the stereotypical portrayals of women within its imagery. In addition, survey questionnaires were distributed amongst female students to determine whether exposure to advertisements featured in Cosmopolitan magazines moulds their thoughts with regard to South African women today, as well as to analyse their attitudinal change before and after exposure to a number of advertisements. It was found that even though the majority of respondents claimed to be aware of the stereotypical representations of women found in the advertisements, and did not believe that these portrayals were a true reflection of South African women, various aspects of their lives continue to be affected by these representations in a number of ways. The findings of this study indicate that the trend found in previous studies – that stereotypical images of women prevail in the media – is evident in South Africa too. It was established that the ideologies of both patriarchy and capitalism work together in supporting the pervasiveness of negative, disempowering portrayals of women in Cosmopolitan advertisements. Stereotypical imagery of women serve as the site at which the ideologies of capitalism and patriarchy fuse, drawing on a common, shared notion of the objectified female to further their goals of maximisation of profits and male dominance respectively.

Globalisation has changed the world economy. Manufacturers face vigorous competition in both local and export markets and need to have a genuine competitive advantage in order to prosper and grow. South Africa is still predominantly a resource based exporter with high aspirations of developing trade in value-added products. The government has recognised the importance of developing national manufacturing capacity as a means of increasing employment and reducing poverty. To this end the government provides substantial support to both the manufacturing and exporting sectors. The government also negotiated the Southern African Development Community (SADC) agreement which leverages some powerful competitive advantages for South African manufacturers exporting into the region. However, since ratification of the SADC agreement in 2008 there has been no perceptible increase in export activity to the region when compared to other markets. This research study was conducted to determine why this is the case and what factors are influencing the process. A literature review was undertaken encapsulating three principal themes; namely, export barriers, the role of the South African government in the export process, and the SADC agreement. Based on the findings of the literature review a research questionnaire was constructed and subsequently completed by a cross section of manufacturers in the Eastern Cape. It was found that export barriers do not pose a major obstacle to trade into the SADC region. The role the government plays was less conclusive with some successes noted, but on the whole the impact is not meaningfully positive. On the other hand the SADC agreement and the dynamics prevailing in the free trade area do have a positive impact on exports to the region. The level of awareness with regard to the government support initiatives was disappointingly low. The government offers a number of helpful support initiatives which are unknown to more than half the response group. The awareness level of the dynamics prevailing in the SADC region are an improvement but are still surprisingly low. South African manufacturers enjoy significant competitive advantages within the region that are going largely unnoticed. It is recommended, inter alia, that the government consolidates some of its support initiatives, as well as provides a dedicated SADC support desk. Management should adopt an export culture and re-evaluate the opportunity to trade with the SADC region.

In October 1995 representatives from ECPAT (End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism) visited several Eastern and Southern African countries. The purpose of the visit was to collect information on child prostitution and the impact of tourism on child prostitution and to assess whether to expand the ECPAT campaign to Africa. Although child prostitution in tourism did not presently appear to be a problem, child prostitution was found to be widespread. One common problem identified by ECPAT in all these countries visited was a lack of legislation to protect children from prostitution and a general helplessness in how best to address the issue. So the idea of a workshop, focusing on legal aspects, was bom with the aim to bring together stakeholders from the various countries to learn from each other’s experiences and begin to formulate responses to child prostitution and prevent child prostitution in tourism. The Network Against Child Labour (NACL) South Africa was able to organise a workshop with the financial support from Bread for the World. Participants from NGO’s and governments from Kenya, Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa attended this first workshop on child prostitution in the region. Two international legal experts and advisers to ECPAT were present and partly facilitated the workshop, enriching our work with their expertise and world wide experience. The aim of the workshop extended beyond a focus on the legal aspects of child prostitution. Other specific purposes were networking, exchanging each other’s experience and achievements in order to develop strategies to combat child prostitution and finding a common ground for co-ordinated action. The Human Science Research Council (HSRC) provided a venue for the workshop and catered for the event. Dr. Willem Schurink from the HSRC organised, together with the Child Protection Unit from the South African Police, a tour to Johannesburg in areas were child prostitution is considered rife. This gave the participants an insight into the situation in South Africa’s largest city and “economic capital”. The two days of our workshop were intense and enriching. We all learned from each other’s experience and realised that there are many common problems that could be tackled with mutual support and advice in order to change legislation, policies and attitudes in the respective countries in the Eastern and Southern African region to ensure that the problem of child prostitution is declining and eventually eradicated. Continued networking and intensifying contacts will be part of our future efforts to combat child prostitution. The NACL wants to take this occasion to thank all participants for their efforts and contributions that made the workshop a success: Muireann OBrian and Denise Ritchie, who helped us in organising and facilitating. Thanks to our two volunteers, Rakgadi Masetlha and Tilman Rapp for the organisation of the workshop and especially to Dr. Willem Schurink of the HSRC, as well as to the funder - Bread for the World. With this publication we hope not only to reach stakeholders in South Africa and the region but to contribute our experience to world wide efforts to eradicate the degrading and often lethal practice of child prostitution by encouraging organisations and individuals to join a network in order to fight the problem.

The Maputo Corridor is the most significant development project undertaken by the South African government since 1994. The Corridor is an extremely complex project, bringing together a variety of actors from South Africa, Mozambique, and beyond. The project includes the rehabilitation and upgrading of major transport and communications infrastructure between Witbank and Maputo, institutional reform to expedite border-crossing, and incentives for labour-intensive investment in the areas adjacent to the Corridor. The Maputo Corridor is also the first build-operate- transfer highway in the region. The Maputo Corridor is a valid and fascinating subject for political inquiry because it provides insight into the new South African government's priorities and ideological stance. Research on the Corridor also contributes to our understanding of political power structures in the region. The primary goal of this dissertation was to come to an understanding of why and how the Maputo Corridor developed. Research was designed to test popular hypotheses from the South African media. These hypotheses were (1) that the Corridor was designed to isolate Gauteng from potential transport-based blackmail by the IFP and (2) that the Corridor was sponsored and directed by the leaders of Mpumalanga Province. This dissertation is composed of four main sections. First, the historical context of the Corridor starting in the 19th century is investigated. Repetitive historical themes with relevance for the present are identified. Second, the leaders and managers of the corridor project are pinpointed. Third, strategic motivations for the corridor in the current political environment are studied. The fourth part consists of an investigation of the means used to implement the Corridor. Several sources of information were used. These sources included indepth interviews with the Corridor's stakeholders, primary documentation, and secondary published sources.

Dissertation Submitted in Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD.) at the University of Witwatersrand – School of Governance September 2015 / This research is demarcated according to two modes, one conceptual – state sovereignty - and two - distant proximity – the ideal of regional integration. When these are juxtaposed in the state sovereignty-regional integration complex, they resemble a complex picture of what is under construction. The nation state currently exists, so it is an important variable. The research examines what happens to the nation state variable, in respect to its policy preferences, interests and ideational content as the process of regional integration evolves. Put differently, does the nation state remain indivisible or is it evolving as the process of regional integration deepens? The research has found that the policy preferences and interests of states in Southern Africa converge and/or diverge not so much based on the SADC objectives and norms. The convergence and/or divergence of policy preferences among states in SADC is informed by the constant negotiation and engagement among states - yielding not so much a zero-sum regional integration arrangement nor is it leading to the demise of the nation state – but around a range of factors including: perceived economic gains and losses; persuasion and influence among state and non-state actors; political solidarity among state actors; external and internal political and economic pressures. The notion of state sovereignty is invoked by many states when all the factors above have yielded inadequate results for the particular state. The research has found that a constructivist process of co-determination and co-constitution and solidarity, albeit very loose and not legaly binding, is taking place in Southern Africa. This process, the research has found, is pointing to an intergovernmental regional integration arrangement wherein certain policy areas or competencies reside at the regional level and some at the nation state level. The process of inter-state action and behaviour, the dissertation has found, is underpinned by the interests, preferences and choices of states in their discursive relationship to one another in the process of regional integration. / MT2016

Thesis (PhD (Archaeology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2005. / This study investigates the evolution of modern mammalian faunas in the central interior of southern Africa by testing the hypothesis that the evolution of the black wildebeest, Connochaetes gnou, was directly associated with the emergence of Highveld-type open grasslands in the central interior. Southern Africa can be distinguished from other arid and semi-arid parts of the continent by the presence of an alliance of endemic grazing ungulates. The black wildebeest is characteristic of this alliance. Open habitats are essential for the reproductive behaviour of the black wildebeest, because territorial males require an unobstructed view of their territories in order to breed. The specialised territorial breeding behaviour of the black wildebeest is the reason why the black wildebeest is historically confined to the Highveld and Karoo areas and why it is reproductively isolated from sympatric blue wildebeest, Connochaetes taurinus. The finds from a number of fossil-rich localities, dating from the recent past to approximately a million years ago, have been identified. The remains referred to ancestral C. gnou have been subjected to detailed qualitative and quantitative osteological comparisons with cranial and post-cranial elements of modern and fossil reference specimens. This material includes extant southern African alcelaphines and fossil materials of C. gnou, the extinct giant wildebeest, Megalotragus priscus, and North African fossil alcelaphines. The results show that cranial changes in fossil C. gnou, particularly the more forward positioning of the horns, basal inflation of the horns and the resultant re-organisation of the posterior part of the skull, preceded other skeletal modifications. These cranial changes indicate a shift towards more specialised territorial breeding behaviour in the earliest ancestral black wildebeest, evident in the specimens of the c. million year old Free State site of Cornelia-Uitzoek. Since the territorial breeding behaviour of the black wildebeest can only function in open habitat and since cranial characters associated with its territorial breeding behaviour preceded other morphological changes, it is deduced that there was a close association between the speciation of C. gnou from a C. taurinus-like ancestor and the appearance of permanently open Highveld-type grasslands in the central interior of southern Africa. This deduction is supported by the lack of trophic distinction between the modern black and blue wildebeest, suggesting that the evolution of the black wildebeest was not accompanied by an ecological shift. It is concluded that the evolution of a distinct southern endemic wildebeest in the Pleistocene was associated with, and possibly driven by, a shift towards a more specialised kind of territorial breeding behaviour, which can only funtion in open habitat. There are significant post-speciation changes in body size and limb proportions of fossil C. gnou through time. The tempo of change has not been constant and populations in the central interior underwent marked reduction in body size in the last 5000 years. Vicariance in fossil C. gnou is evident in different rates of change that are recorded in the populations of generally smaller body size that became isolated in the Cape Ecozone. These daughter populations, the result of dispersals from the central interior, became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene.

The focus of this study is to explore and expand farmer learning processes in sustainable agriculture workplace contexts. It examines change oriented learning processes in the context of three sustainable agriculture practices. The study begins by discussing the history and emergence of environmental discourses and approaches; sustainable agriculture; and the histories of three kinds of sustainable agriculture practices: Permaculture, Organic Farming and Machobane Farming System. It also traces the evolution of agricultural extension approaches within the wider context of education for sustainable development. The main focus of the study is an exploration of how farmer learning can be mediated through an expansive learning process. The study methodology surfaces some of the contradictions in sustainable agriculture and learning activity systems that farmers encounter in learning and practising sustainable agriculture. It uses these contradictions as sources of expansive learning in and between the respective activity systems of farmers, sustainable agriculture facilitators, agricultural extension workers (conventional) and organic entrepreneurs. As shown in the study, the expansive learning processes result in the modelling, implementation and reviewing of solutions to contradictions being faced in the learning and practice of sustainable agriculture. The study also proposes a number of tools that can be adapted and used by development farmers and agricultural trainers to examine and expand learning as well as build farmer agency. The study was conducted in three case study sites in Lesotho, South Africa and Zimbabwe. In Zimbabwe the study is located in Hwedza district in the St Margaret Primary School and community that learn, practise and facilitate the learning of Permaculture within the Schools and Colleges Permaculture Programme (SCOPE). The second study site is in South Africa: Durban urban and peri-urban areas where a community of organic farmers, facilitators and entrepreneurs coordinate the marketing of their produce through Isidore Farm and Earth Mother Organic and support each other to learn and practise organic farming. The third study site is based in the Mafeteng and Mohale‟s Hoek districts of Lesotho where the focus was on farmers who learn and practise the Machobane Farming System (MFS) and are supported in this by the Rural Self Development Association (RSDA) and the Machobane Agricultural Development Foundation (MADF). Drawing on three sensitising concepts of dialectics, reflexivity and agency, the study worked with Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) underpinned by critical realism to reveal how farmer learning is mediated and expanded. The theory of practice/habitus also provided a useful theoretical lens with which to examine data generated. Using a two-phased, multiple embedded case study approach, the study worked within the broad framework of social learning. It used semi-structured individual and group interviews, observations and document analysis to explore learning processes and generate „mirror‟ data. This data was then used in Change Laboratory Workshops, within the Developmental Work Research methodology, where double stimulation and focus group discussions contributed to expanding learning processes. Drawing on critical realism the study used inductive, abductive and retroductive modes of inference to analyse data in each case study as well as across case studies. The findings of the study reveal that farmer learning is influenced by both intrinsic motives, such as identity, and extrinsic motives which are primarily associated with economic, ecological and health benefits. Farmers learn through scaffolding and mediating tools that link everyday and scientific knowledge. They also learn from fellow farmers through observation, practising and experimentation. Some of the issues that were raised in connection with farmer learning processes are: language; time to learn, practice and appropriate concepts; time to improve the natural resource base while at the same time improving income generation; and responses to climate change. The study also found that farmer learning and practice of sustainable agriculture in the case studies investigated, is influenced by past and current agricultural and educational policies; societal values and attitudes; social and cultural backgrounds; work affordances and gender relations; quality of training offered; poverty; and, HIV and AIDS. In the second phase of the study, which built on the problematic situations being encountered by research participants (sustainable agriculture farmers, sustainable agriculture facilitators, extension workers, and organic marketers) to surface contradictions, the main finding was that the expansive learning process has potential to enhance farmer learning and practice of sustainable agriculture. It does this by mobilising distributed cognition among participants as well as their preparedness to act. Through the expansive learning processes in each case study, research participants were able to question their practices, surface contradictions, model solutions and implement them, and thus build individual, collective and relational agency reflexively. Observation of this required micro-analysis of agentive talk and reflective talk. The study contributes in-depth insight into participatory research and learning processes, especially within the context of people-centred learning and innovation in the agricultural development arena. It provides empirical and explanatory insight into how change oriented social learning can emerge and be expanded in Education for Sustainable Development, explaining learning and change relationships in three sustainable agricultural practices. It also provides learning and extension tools to work with contradictions that arise from intentionality, experience, context and history in farming and training activity systems. Its key contribution lies in providing in-depth insight into mobilisation of human agency and reflexivity in change oriented sustainable agriculture learning and development, processes that are critical for responding to contemporary socio-ecological issues and risks.

The study investigated the impact of regional financial integration on financial development with specific focus on the SADC protocols on trade and finance and investment. A total of 14 countries made up the study sample and the panel cointegration fully modified ordinary least squares model alongside the GMM were used to estimate the nature of impact. Study findings showed regional integration through the protocol on trade had a positive and significant impact on size and efficiency of the banking sector using the FMOLS estimator. GMM estimations for the same variables were largely insignificant. The results also showed a positive impact of the trade protocol on stock market capitalization but a negative and insignificant impact on stock turnover. The finance and investment protocol had a negative and insignificant relationship with broad money and a positive and significant impact on private sector credit for both estimators. The protocol was found to have had no significant effect on stock market development. The impact of the finance protocol was not significant enough to be detected in global integration measures, implying their implementation may not have significantly improved global integration for SADC countries. The study also uncovered the complimentary relationship between institutional quality and social capital in the financial development process and recommended the development of outward looking integration policies which focus on regional integration with the outside world. / Business Management / D. Com. (Business Management)