O presente trabalho apresenta um estudo numérico dos efeitos da aplicação de geometrias geradoras de vórtices, com intuito de controlar passivamente a camada limite, em um perfil aerodinâmico que integra a asa traseira de multi elementos de um veículo de Fórmula SAE. As equações de Navier-Stokes com médias de Reynolds foram resolvidas utilizando o modelo k-ω SST (Shear Stress Transport) para o problema de fechamento da turbulência. Uma metodologia numérica padrão foi definida e utilizada nos diferentes casos analisados. Domínio de cálculo, malha, condições de contorno e critério de convergência foram escolhidos com base em norma SAE para análise numérica de escoamento externo em veículos terrestres. As camadas de volumes prismáticos próximos as superfícies com não-deslizamento foram dimensionadas de forma a resultar em um tratamento de parede adequado ao modelo de turbulência aplicado. O método GCI (Grid Convergence Index) foi utilizado para avaliar a qualidade da malha. Com o intuito de reduzir o custo computacional nos testes com diferentes configurações de geradores de vórtices, apenas parte de interesse do domínio de cálculo foi resolvido, impondo perfis de velocidade, energia cinética da turbulência e dissipação específica em sua entrada. Estas condições foram importadas da simulação com domínio completo resolvida Para verificar a correta captação dos principais efeitos físicos envolvidos, comparações com resultados experimentais foram feitas para 2 casos com escoamentos representativos: o corpo de Ahmed e um perfil aerodinâmico com geradores de vórtices. Além disso, as diferenças entre resolver o domínio completo ou parcial foram estudadas em outro comparativo com resultados experimentais. Concluiu-se que a metodologia numérica foi capaz de obter os coeficientes aerodinâmicos, e suas tendências frente a mudanças de geometria, nos casos estudados. Resolver parcialmente o domínio, impondo perfis em sua entrada, acarretou em diferença nos coeficientes obtidos na ordem de 2% para o coeficiente de sustentação e 7% para o coeficiente de arrasto. O controle passivo via geradores de vórtices foi eficaz em atrasar a separação da camada limite no flap do veículo de Fórmula SAE, as melhoras nos coeficientes de arrasto e sustentação foram da ordem de 7% e 0,3%, respectivamente. / The present work is a numerical study of the effects of the application of vortex generating geometries, in order to passively control the boundary layer, in an aerodynamic profile that integrates a multi-element rear wing of a Formula SAE vehicle. The Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes equations were solved using the k-ω Shear Stress Transport model for the turbulence closure problem. A standard numerical methodology was defined and used in the different cases analyzed. Computational domain, mesh, boundary conditions and convergence criteria were chosen based on SAE standard for numerical analysis of external flow in land vehicles. The layers of prismatic volumes near the non-slip surfaces were dimensioned to result in a wall treatment suitable to the applied turbulence model. The Grid Convergence Index (GCI) method was applied to evaluate the mesh quality. In order to reduce the computational cost in tests with different vortex generators configurations, only the part of interest of the calculation domain was solved, imposing velocity, turbulent kinetic energy and specific dissipation profiles on its inlet These conditions were imported from the full domain simulation already solved. To verify the correct capture of the main physical effects involved, comparisons with experimental results were made for 2 cases with representative flows: the Ahmed body and an aerodynamic profile with vortex generators. In addition, the differences between solving the complete or partial domain were studied in another comparative with experimental results. It was concluded that the numerical methodology was able to obtain the aerodynamic coefficients, and their tendencies against changes of geometry, in the cases studied. Partially solving the domain, imposing profiles at its entrance, resulted in a difference in the coefficients obtained in the order of 2% for the lift coefficient and 7% for the drag coefficient. The passive control via vortex generators was effective in delaying the separation of the boundary layer on the flap of the Formula SAE vehicle, the improvements in drag and lift coefficients were of the order of 7% and 0,3%, respectively.

Este trabalho consiste na aplicação de métodos de otimização e de dinâmica dos fluidos computacional a turbinas eólicas. O grande crescimento no mercado de energias renováveis exige que turbinas cada vez mais potentes sejam criadas e que o projeto e análise destas seja cada vez mais preciso. A presente dissertação tem como objetivos a otimização um aerofólio para turbinas eólicas, a simulação de um aerofólio de uma turbina eólica com alto ângulo de ataque e a simulação de uma turbina tridimensional. A otimização de aerofólios foi feita com simulações bidimensionais permanentes, utilizando as equações médias de Reynolds e o modelo de turbulência de Spalart-Allmaras, com algoritmos genéticos acoplados a redes neurais artificiais. O cálculo de um aerofólio com alto ângulo de ataque foi feito utilizando simulações de grandes escalas com o modelo dinâmico de Smagorinsky. As simulações de uma turbina tridimensional foram feitas empregando as equações médias de Reynolds em forma permanente, com um termo adicional representando as forças de Coriolis, também com o modelo de turbulência de Spalart-Allmaras. Da primeira etapa pode-se concluir que as simulações bidimensionais permanentes são muito precisas para o aerofólio de referência, com boa concordância nos coeficientes de arrasto, sustentação e pressão. Os algoritmos genéticos geraram bons resultados, com cerca de 8% de aumento da razão sustentação/arrasto e com aproximadamente 50% de economia no tempo computacional ao se utilizar redes neurais artificiais. Na segunda etapa, o cálculo de um aerofólio com alto ângulo de ataque demonstrou necessidade de simulações tridimensionais transientes, pela alta variação dos coeficientes aerodinâmicos ao longo do tempo e alta tridimensionalidade da esteira. Na última etapa, a simulação de uma turbina tridimensional mostrou resultados muito próximos dos experimentais. Muita atenção foi dada na discretização deste caso, chegando a uma malha com 700 mil elementos, enquanto outros autores utilizaram de 3 a 38 milhões de elementos para o mesmo caso. / The present work consists in the application of optimization methods and computational fluid dynamics to wind turbines. The massive growth in renewable energies demands more powerful turbines and more accuracy in their design and analysis. This work has three objectives: optimization of an airfoil for wind turbines, simulation of a wind turbine airfoil in deep stall, and simulation of a three-dimensional wind turbine. The airfoil optimization is accomplished by means of two-dimensional steady-state Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes simulations with the Spalart-Allmaras turbulence model, with genetic algorithms coupled with artificial neural networks. The airfoil in deep stall is calculated with unsteady three-dimensional Large Eddy Simulations with the dynamic Smagorinsky model. The simulation of a wind turbine is also done by means of the Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes equations, with an additional term to take the Coriolis forces into account, and the Spalart-Allmaras turbulence model. In the first application, it can be confirmed that the two-dimensional steady state simulations are very accurate for the reference airfoil, with good agreement for drag, lift, and pressure coefficients. Genetic algorithms improved the lift-to-drag ratio about 8%, with a 50% decrease in computational time when using artificial neural networks. For the second application, the airfoil with a high angle of attack showed that transient three-dimensional simulations were indeed required, with a high variation of aerodynamic coefficient as a function of time and the highly three-dimensional wake. In the final part, the three-dimensional wind turbine showed very good agreement with experimental results. A great deal of attention was devoted to the creation of the grid and a mesh with only 700 thousand elements was achieved, while other authors used from 3 to 38 million elements for the same case.

O presente trabalho apresenta um estudo numérico dos efeitos da aplicação de geometrias geradoras de vórtices, com intuito de controlar passivamente a camada limite, em um perfil aerodinâmico que integra a asa traseira de multi elementos de um veículo de Fórmula SAE. As equações de Navier-Stokes com médias de Reynolds foram resolvidas utilizando o modelo k-ω SST (Shear Stress Transport) para o problema de fechamento da turbulência. Uma metodologia numérica padrão foi definida e utilizada nos diferentes casos analisados. Domínio de cálculo, malha, condições de contorno e critério de convergência foram escolhidos com base em norma SAE para análise numérica de escoamento externo em veículos terrestres. As camadas de volumes prismáticos próximos as superfícies com não-deslizamento foram dimensionadas de forma a resultar em um tratamento de parede adequado ao modelo de turbulência aplicado. O método GCI (Grid Convergence Index) foi utilizado para avaliar a qualidade da malha. Com o intuito de reduzir o custo computacional nos testes com diferentes configurações de geradores de vórtices, apenas parte de interesse do domínio de cálculo foi resolvido, impondo perfis de velocidade, energia cinética da turbulência e dissipação específica em sua entrada. Estas condições foram importadas da simulação com domínio completo resolvida Para verificar a correta captação dos principais efeitos físicos envolvidos, comparações com resultados experimentais foram feitas para 2 casos com escoamentos representativos: o corpo de Ahmed e um perfil aerodinâmico com geradores de vórtices. Além disso, as diferenças entre resolver o domínio completo ou parcial foram estudadas em outro comparativo com resultados experimentais. Concluiu-se que a metodologia numérica foi capaz de obter os coeficientes aerodinâmicos, e suas tendências frente a mudanças de geometria, nos casos estudados. Resolver parcialmente o domínio, impondo perfis em sua entrada, acarretou em diferença nos coeficientes obtidos na ordem de 2% para o coeficiente de sustentação e 7% para o coeficiente de arrasto. O controle passivo via geradores de vórtices foi eficaz em atrasar a separação da camada limite no flap do veículo de Fórmula SAE, as melhoras nos coeficientes de arrasto e sustentação foram da ordem de 7% e 0,3%, respectivamente. / The present work is a numerical study of the effects of the application of vortex generating geometries, in order to passively control the boundary layer, in an aerodynamic profile that integrates a multi-element rear wing of a Formula SAE vehicle. The Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes equations were solved using the k-ω Shear Stress Transport model for the turbulence closure problem. A standard numerical methodology was defined and used in the different cases analyzed. Computational domain, mesh, boundary conditions and convergence criteria were chosen based on SAE standard for numerical analysis of external flow in land vehicles. The layers of prismatic volumes near the non-slip surfaces were dimensioned to result in a wall treatment suitable to the applied turbulence model. The Grid Convergence Index (GCI) method was applied to evaluate the mesh quality. In order to reduce the computational cost in tests with different vortex generators configurations, only the part of interest of the calculation domain was solved, imposing velocity, turbulent kinetic energy and specific dissipation profiles on its inlet These conditions were imported from the full domain simulation already solved. To verify the correct capture of the main physical effects involved, comparisons with experimental results were made for 2 cases with representative flows: the Ahmed body and an aerodynamic profile with vortex generators. In addition, the differences between solving the complete or partial domain were studied in another comparative with experimental results. It was concluded that the numerical methodology was able to obtain the aerodynamic coefficients, and their tendencies against changes of geometry, in the cases studied. Partially solving the domain, imposing profiles at its entrance, resulted in a difference in the coefficients obtained in the order of 2% for the lift coefficient and 7% for the drag coefficient. The passive control via vortex generators was effective in delaying the separation of the boundary layer on the flap of the Formula SAE vehicle, the improvements in drag and lift coefficients were of the order of 7% and 0,3%, respectively.

Este trabalho consiste na aplicação de métodos de otimização e de dinâmica dos fluidos computacional a turbinas eólicas. O grande crescimento no mercado de energias renováveis exige que turbinas cada vez mais potentes sejam criadas e que o projeto e análise destas seja cada vez mais preciso. A presente dissertação tem como objetivos a otimização um aerofólio para turbinas eólicas, a simulação de um aerofólio de uma turbina eólica com alto ângulo de ataque e a simulação de uma turbina tridimensional. A otimização de aerofólios foi feita com simulações bidimensionais permanentes, utilizando as equações médias de Reynolds e o modelo de turbulência de Spalart-Allmaras, com algoritmos genéticos acoplados a redes neurais artificiais. O cálculo de um aerofólio com alto ângulo de ataque foi feito utilizando simulações de grandes escalas com o modelo dinâmico de Smagorinsky. As simulações de uma turbina tridimensional foram feitas empregando as equações médias de Reynolds em forma permanente, com um termo adicional representando as forças de Coriolis, também com o modelo de turbulência de Spalart-Allmaras. Da primeira etapa pode-se concluir que as simulações bidimensionais permanentes são muito precisas para o aerofólio de referência, com boa concordância nos coeficientes de arrasto, sustentação e pressão. Os algoritmos genéticos geraram bons resultados, com cerca de 8% de aumento da razão sustentação/arrasto e com aproximadamente 50% de economia no tempo computacional ao se utilizar redes neurais artificiais. Na segunda etapa, o cálculo de um aerofólio com alto ângulo de ataque demonstrou necessidade de simulações tridimensionais transientes, pela alta variação dos coeficientes aerodinâmicos ao longo do tempo e alta tridimensionalidade da esteira. Na última etapa, a simulação de uma turbina tridimensional mostrou resultados muito próximos dos experimentais. Muita atenção foi dada na discretização deste caso, chegando a uma malha com 700 mil elementos, enquanto outros autores utilizaram de 3 a 38 milhões de elementos para o mesmo caso. / The present work consists in the application of optimization methods and computational fluid dynamics to wind turbines. The massive growth in renewable energies demands more powerful turbines and more accuracy in their design and analysis. This work has three objectives: optimization of an airfoil for wind turbines, simulation of a wind turbine airfoil in deep stall, and simulation of a three-dimensional wind turbine. The airfoil optimization is accomplished by means of two-dimensional steady-state Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes simulations with the Spalart-Allmaras turbulence model, with genetic algorithms coupled with artificial neural networks. The airfoil in deep stall is calculated with unsteady three-dimensional Large Eddy Simulations with the dynamic Smagorinsky model. The simulation of a wind turbine is also done by means of the Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes equations, with an additional term to take the Coriolis forces into account, and the Spalart-Allmaras turbulence model. In the first application, it can be confirmed that the two-dimensional steady state simulations are very accurate for the reference airfoil, with good agreement for drag, lift, and pressure coefficients. Genetic algorithms improved the lift-to-drag ratio about 8%, with a 50% decrease in computational time when using artificial neural networks. For the second application, the airfoil with a high angle of attack showed that transient three-dimensional simulations were indeed required, with a high variation of aerodynamic coefficient as a function of time and the highly three-dimensional wake. In the final part, the three-dimensional wind turbine showed very good agreement with experimental results. A great deal of attention was devoted to the creation of the grid and a mesh with only 700 thousand elements was achieved, while other authors used from 3 to 38 million elements for the same case.

O presente trabalho apresenta um estudo numérico dos efeitos da aplicação de geometrias geradoras de vórtices, com intuito de controlar passivamente a camada limite, em um perfil aerodinâmico que integra a asa traseira de multi elementos de um veículo de Fórmula SAE. As equações de Navier-Stokes com médias de Reynolds foram resolvidas utilizando o modelo k-ω SST (Shear Stress Transport) para o problema de fechamento da turbulência. Uma metodologia numérica padrão foi definida e utilizada nos diferentes casos analisados. Domínio de cálculo, malha, condições de contorno e critério de convergência foram escolhidos com base em norma SAE para análise numérica de escoamento externo em veículos terrestres. As camadas de volumes prismáticos próximos as superfícies com não-deslizamento foram dimensionadas de forma a resultar em um tratamento de parede adequado ao modelo de turbulência aplicado. O método GCI (Grid Convergence Index) foi utilizado para avaliar a qualidade da malha. Com o intuito de reduzir o custo computacional nos testes com diferentes configurações de geradores de vórtices, apenas parte de interesse do domínio de cálculo foi resolvido, impondo perfis de velocidade, energia cinética da turbulência e dissipação específica em sua entrada. Estas condições foram importadas da simulação com domínio completo resolvida Para verificar a correta captação dos principais efeitos físicos envolvidos, comparações com resultados experimentais foram feitas para 2 casos com escoamentos representativos: o corpo de Ahmed e um perfil aerodinâmico com geradores de vórtices. Além disso, as diferenças entre resolver o domínio completo ou parcial foram estudadas em outro comparativo com resultados experimentais. Concluiu-se que a metodologia numérica foi capaz de obter os coeficientes aerodinâmicos, e suas tendências frente a mudanças de geometria, nos casos estudados. Resolver parcialmente o domínio, impondo perfis em sua entrada, acarretou em diferença nos coeficientes obtidos na ordem de 2% para o coeficiente de sustentação e 7% para o coeficiente de arrasto. O controle passivo via geradores de vórtices foi eficaz em atrasar a separação da camada limite no flap do veículo de Fórmula SAE, as melhoras nos coeficientes de arrasto e sustentação foram da ordem de 7% e 0,3%, respectivamente. / The present work is a numerical study of the effects of the application of vortex generating geometries, in order to passively control the boundary layer, in an aerodynamic profile that integrates a multi-element rear wing of a Formula SAE vehicle. The Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes equations were solved using the k-ω Shear Stress Transport model for the turbulence closure problem. A standard numerical methodology was defined and used in the different cases analyzed. Computational domain, mesh, boundary conditions and convergence criteria were chosen based on SAE standard for numerical analysis of external flow in land vehicles. The layers of prismatic volumes near the non-slip surfaces were dimensioned to result in a wall treatment suitable to the applied turbulence model. The Grid Convergence Index (GCI) method was applied to evaluate the mesh quality. In order to reduce the computational cost in tests with different vortex generators configurations, only the part of interest of the calculation domain was solved, imposing velocity, turbulent kinetic energy and specific dissipation profiles on its inlet These conditions were imported from the full domain simulation already solved. To verify the correct capture of the main physical effects involved, comparisons with experimental results were made for 2 cases with representative flows: the Ahmed body and an aerodynamic profile with vortex generators. In addition, the differences between solving the complete or partial domain were studied in another comparative with experimental results. It was concluded that the numerical methodology was able to obtain the aerodynamic coefficients, and their tendencies against changes of geometry, in the cases studied. Partially solving the domain, imposing profiles at its entrance, resulted in a difference in the coefficients obtained in the order of 2% for the lift coefficient and 7% for the drag coefficient. The passive control via vortex generators was effective in delaying the separation of the boundary layer on the flap of the Formula SAE vehicle, the improvements in drag and lift coefficients were of the order of 7% and 0,3%, respectively.

A pressurized vortex tube is used to generate streamwise vortices in a wind tunnel and the resulting flow behavior is analyzed. The apparatus is intended to verify computational data from the AFRL by offering a method of conducting real-world counterpart experiments. The apparatus design process and other considered approaches are discussed. The vortex tube is operated at pressures of 20, 30 and 40 psi while the wind tunnel is operated at 3, 5, 10 and 20% capacity. Flow measurements are performed using particle image velocimetry to observe vortices and freestream interactions from which velocity and vorticity data is comparatively analyzed. Results indicate that vortex velocity greater than freestream flow velocity is a primary factor in maintaining vortex structures further downstream, while increased supply pressure and reduced freestream velocity also reduce vortex dissipation rate. A brief analysis of the vortex interaction with a downstream airfoil is presented to support future work.

In the advent of increasing the number of operable unmanned aerial systems (UAS) over the next years, a challenge exists in regard to the noise signature that these machines may generate. In this work, we perform advanced computational simulations to study the flow around an airfoil and the associated noise radiating to the near- and farield. The airfoil size and the freestream velocity are representative of a typical UAS. The study is aimed at investigating the characteristics of the aerodynamic noise radiating from an airfoil at various angles of attack, Reynolds number and Mach number. The numerical tool is a high-order compressible Navier-Stokes solver, using Runge-Kutta explicit time integration and dispersion-relation-preserving spatial discretization. Various results in terms of velocity and pressure distribution around the airfoil, and sound pressure level spectra calculated from different probe points located in the near- and farield are compared to each other and discussed.

The flow over sharp-edged wings is almost always separated. The control of separated flows is possible and benefits can be achieved but only in a time average sense. A new design of an actuator was designed and tested which can achieve a wide range velocity of without frequency dependence, is free of oscillating components as well as free of secondary frequencies and therefore can be scaled up easily, unlike a traditional synthetic jet. The actuator can achieve a considerable amount of jet vectoring, thus aligning the disturbance with the leading edge shear layer. Results indicate that unsteady mini-jet actuation is an effective actuation device capable of increasing the lift in the stall region of the airfoil. Moreover, pressure measurements showed that two parameters could be altered to maximize the lift. The momentum coefficient needed a minimum value to exert influence and the actuating frequency need not be at exact the natural shedding frequency to improve the lift and can be operated at harmonics of the natural shedding frequency and obtain improvements. / Master of Science

This thesis introduces the Deterministic Disturbance Generator (DDG) and its development process. The DDG performs two motions and five pitch rates. The flap motion, which rotates the airfoil from 0◦ to 20◦ and back, and the ramp motion, which rotates it from 0◦ to 20◦ with a dwell of 1s before returning to 0◦. To determine the angle of attack, a Matlab function converted thrust rod displacement into the assumed angle, validated against true angle of attack measurements on the DDG. Mean angular displacements were plotted, and standard deviations of the 95% confidence intervals were calculated within ±1.3◦ for all motions. The mechanical force on the actuator was computed to be 77N. Aerodynamic forces on the DDG were determined to be 15N and 19N for flap and ramp motions respectively. The total force on the system did not exceed 100N in any case, staying below the peak force capacity, while acceleration reached its limit. Flow velocimetry in the Virginia Tech Stability Wind Tunnel (VTSWT) employed a time-resolved Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) to study the effects of 20◦ flap and ramp motions, with mean actuation times of 63ms and 37ms. Flap motion showed a significant deficit in mean streamwise velocities, and the ramp motion exhibited similar behavior until its dwell position, generating a large wake region due to airfoil stall after its peak. Comparison of data from the Goodwin Hall Subsonic Tunnel (GHST) with VTSWT data for overlapping domains revealed similar flow field features when normalized based on the boundary layer velocity (43mm plane from wall) of the latter. Considering actuation time differences, the freestream normalized GHST data was combined with VTSWT data. The cohesive PIV domain offered a broader perspective on the missing flow features. / Master of Science / A Deterministic Disturbance Generator (DDG) was designed to generate consistent largescale transversal transient disturbances in the wall boundary layer of the Virginia Tech Stability Wind Tunnel. It comprises an airfoil connected to an actuator through a rotating mechanism. The rotating mechanism can be controlled by manipulating the actuator to induce motion. The rotational speed of the airfoil is regulated by a program provided to the actuator. The DDG motions were validated to achieve nearly identical motion profiles to ensure it produced consistent turbulence wakes. The linear displacement of the actuator and airfoil was measured using a laser sensor, and a code was developed to convert this data into the observed angle of attack. Tests were conducted to verify repeatability and fine-tune the system's motions. A comprehensive description of the fabrication process, hardware and software setup, and calibration procedures involved in developing the DDG are provided. Using aerodynamic models, a computational study is performed to determine the forces associated with the airfoil and actuator. Subsequently, the DDG was subjected to testing in two wind tunnels: the Goodwin Hall Subsonic Tunnel for preliminary characterization and error mitigation and the Virginia Tech Stability Wind Tunnel for final assessment of the DDG's performance. Flow velocimetry data obtained from both tests are analyzed, revealing similarities in the induced motions. Mean flow fields and turbulence values are determined, and the effects of different pitch rates are also assessed. Finally, the mean flow fields corresponding to identical motion types from both datasets were integrated into a cohesive plot. This resulted in a comprehensive understanding of the flow field.

The interest toward Mars exploration has been considerably increasing due to also the successful deployment of the Perseverance rover and the continuous tests developed by SpaceX's launch vehicle, Starship. While the Mars 2020 mission is currently in progress, the first controlled flight on another planet have been proven in April 2021 with the vertical take-off and landing of the Ingenuity rotorcraft on Mars. In addition, the rotorcraft Dragonfly is expected to achieve the same endeavor in Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, by 2036. Continuous efforts have been oriented toward the development of new technologies and aircraft configurations to improve the performance of current proposed designs to achieve powered flight in different planetary bodies. This thesis work is a preliminary study to develop a comprehensive analysis over the generation of optimum airfoil geometries to achieve vertical flight in environments where low Reynolds numbers and Mach number equal to 0.2 and 0.5.