Excessive bacterial levels are a major water quality concern. Better methods are needed to quantify the proportion of bacterial loading contributed by various sources, and best management practices are needed to restore water quality. This study assessed the ability of alternative water supplies and grazing management to reduce E. coli loading from cattle and evaluated the ability of quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis of total and bovine-associated Bacteroides markers (AllBac and BoBac, respectively) to determine the percentage of bovine-associated fecal contamination. Runoff from seven small watersheds, representing ungrazed, properly stocked, and overstocked conditions, was analyzed for E. coli, AllBac, and BoBac to assess grazing management impacts on E. coli runoff and the effectiveness of Bacteroides markers. To determine the effectiveness of alternative water, instream E. coli levels and cattle movement were evaluated before and after alternative water was provided. The study found that when alternative off-stream water was provided, the amount of time cattle spent in the creek was reduced 43 percent and the direct deposition of E. coli into Clear Fork of Plum Creek was estimated to be reduced from 1.11E 07 to 6.34E 06 colony forming units per animal unit per day. Observed pre- and post-treatment E. coli loads suggested similar reductions; however, this study could not conclusively attribute observed E. coli loading reductions to providing alternative water because of the lack of statistical significance of these observations, possibly due to decreased streamflow during Year 2 (due to drought) and a corresponding increase in E. coli levels. The study found that rotational stocking, if timed appropriately, was very effective at reducing E. coli runoff. The impact of grazing timing in relation to runoff events was more significant than the impact of grazing management (i.e. ungrazed properly stocked or overstocked) or stocking rate. When runoff occurred more than two weeks following grazing, E. coli levels in runoff were decreased more than 88 percent. Finally, data suggest that AllBac and BoBac markers are good indicators of recent fecal contamination from cattle. However, although elevated BoBac/AllBac ratios generally aligned well with cattle presence, this ratio appeared to underestimate the percentage of bovine-associated fecal contamination.

This thesis examines the concept of water cooperatives as an alternative model to create access, supply and manage water services in poor urban and peri urban areas. Two case studies from the Municipality of Moreno, Buenos Aires are presented in this thesis in order to account for the feasibility of the model. The primary data for this research is derived from participant observation, key informant interviews, household questionnaire-based interviews and archival research. The significance of researching water cooperatives is that they have traditionally been dismissed in regard to their potential of being a practical alternative to large water concessions and public run water services in the Global South. Research on alternatives such as water cooperatives is key, particularly in the face of growing de-privatization in the water sector in the province of Buenos Aires. The Buenos Aires Metropolitan Area is an important case study for research on water governance because it was intended to be the World Banks model for which other countries would strive to emulate when reforming and improving water services by means of private concessions. The first part of the thesis examines the political and social history of water cooperatives in Argentina and the effects of privatization on the cooperative model. The second part outlines the theoretical advantages and disadvantages of the governance model and positions these theories against the realities of an existing water cooperative and a poor peri-urban community that has a strong affinity for implementing the model in their community. The two case studies presented in this thesis help to elucidate why the water governance model is able to serve poor peri-urban communities that otherwise remain unserviced by the traditional public or private water governance models. This is significant if we are earnest about providing water and sanitation services to all.

This thesis examines the concept of water cooperatives as an alternative model to create access, supply and manage water services in poor urban and peri urban areas. Two case studies from the Municipality of Moreno, Buenos Aires are presented in this thesis in order to account for the feasibility of the model. The primary data for this research is derived from participant observation, key informant interviews, household questionnaire-based interviews and archival research. The significance of researching water cooperatives is that they have traditionally been dismissed in regard to their potential of being a practical alternative to large water concessions and public run water services in the Global South. Research on alternatives such as water cooperatives is key, particularly in the face of growing de-privatization in the water sector in the province of Buenos Aires. The Buenos Aires Metropolitan Area is an important case study for research on water governance because it was intended to be the World Banks model for which other countries would strive to emulate when reforming and improving water services by means of private concessions. The first part of the thesis examines the political and social history of water cooperatives in Argentina and the effects of privatization on the cooperative model. The second part outlines the theoretical advantages and disadvantages of the governance model and positions these theories against the realities of an existing water cooperative and a poor peri-urban community that has a strong affinity for implementing the model in their community. The two case studies presented in this thesis help to elucidate why the water governance model is able to serve poor peri-urban communities that otherwise remain unserviced by the traditional public or private water governance models. This is significant if we are earnest about providing water and sanitation services to all.

The aim of this project was to quantitatively measure the resilience of the building water cycle. In order to accomplish this goal, a framework was developed that outlines how building water resilience can be evaluated. The framework presented assumed that resilience describes the fulfillment of system functions; in this case, the system functions considered are those actualized by the building water system. A building water resilience assessment model (WRAM) was developed with the ability to simulate different building water cycles and resilience scenarios. Resilience is dependent on the type and magnitude of a disturbance. Therefore, unique disruption scenarios were developed to test the building water cycle resilience: (1) loss of municipal potable water and (2) loss of both municipal potable water and power. Under each scenario, the building water cycle was tested based on the type of building and the water management strategies utilized by the building. The WRAM requires organization of water demand and source connections, and an explicit prioritization framework was produced based on water source and demand preferences found in literature. The framework gives priority to treated wastewater, stormwater, rainwater, condensate, reclaimed water, and potable water, respectively. The baseline prioritization may be manipulated by restricting demand-source connections, and shifting priorities was shown to affect the potential for potable water offsets as a precursor to resilience. Real building water demand profiles were developed from data collected using smart meters at four building sites (multi-residential neighborhood, commercial building, elementary school, and community center). Water source profiles were developed using hourly climate data for the region. Detailed building water demand and supply profiles were developed for the multi-residential and elementary school building sites for resilience assessment using the WRAM. Each building water profile was adapted into 9 scenarios with each subjected to the two disruption schemes for 5 different disruption durations (1 hour, 6 hours, 24 hours, 72 hours, and 168 hours) at 10 different randomized dates and time throughout the year. The result was 450 model runs for each building subjected to each disruption scheme (potable water loss or potable water and central power loss). The relationship between resilience and sustainability was examined based on sustainable building practices accepted by the U.S. Green Building Council's (USGBC) Leadership in Environmental and Energy Design (LEED) green building rating system. Building WRAM outcomes include unique water demand and supply profiles used to describe resilience in terms of the level of service (LOS) of building water functions. Analysis of water profiles validated redundancy, diversity, capacity, alternative water, passivity, preparation, and adaptation potential indicators as gauges of the resilience of the building water cycle. Results showed that resilience correlates with alternative water building water management strategies, but high resilience values are still attainable using storage of non-renewable, non-sustainable sources. However, building water cycles utilizing alternative water maintained steadier resilience as disruption lengths increase due to the ability of sources to be replenished during disruption events. The strongest correlation with LOS was observed for the diversity, redundancy, alternative water, and capacity indicators when scenarios utilizing only potable water were excluded from analysis. For these scenarios, correlation values were 0.56 for diversity, 0.56 for redundancy, 0.60 for capacity, and 1.00 for alternative water for the multi-residential building subjected to potable water loss; and 0.33 for diversity, 0.24 for redundancy, 0.62 for capacity, and 1.00 for alternative water for the multi-residential building subjected to both potable water and central power disruption. For elementary school scenarios that did not utilize potable water storage, correlation values were 0.67 for diversity, 0.64 for redundancy, 0.06 for capacity, and 0.89 for alternative water when subjected to disruption of potable water; and 0.67 for diversity, 0.64 for redundancy, 0.06 for capacity, and 0.80 for alternative water when subjected to disruption of potable water and central power. Passivity correlation to LOS was between 0.77 and 1.00 for all scenarios, building types, and disruption schemes. Passivity correlation with LOS was lower for potable water disruption scenarios, but higher when building water cycles lost power in addition to potable water. The average of each indicator was also calculated for each scenario for each of the five disruption durations by grouping the individual values from each of the 10 randomized disruption start dates and times. The correlation between the average capacity indicator and LOS greatly increased with this method to a range of 0.41 to 0.78 for all buildings subjected to each disruption scheme. In addition, a positive correlation between the preparation indicator and LOS (and corresponding negative correlation between the adaptation potential indicator and LOS) emerged for scenarios that do not utilize potable water storage. For disruption of potable water, the preparation correlation value was 0.94 for the multi-residential building and 0.78 for the elementary school. For disruption of potable water and central power, the preparation correlation value was 0.32 for the multi-residential building and 0.79 for the elementary school.

This thesis examines the concept of water cooperatives as an alternative model to create access, supply and manage water services in poor urban and peri urban areas. Two case studies from the Municipality of Moreno, Buenos Aires are presented in this thesis in order to account for the feasibility of the model. The primary data for this research is derived from participant observation, key informant interviews, household questionnaire-based interviews and archival research. The significance of researching water cooperatives is that they have traditionally been dismissed in regard to their potential of being a practical alternative to large water concessions and public run water services in the Global South. Research on alternatives such as water cooperatives is key, particularly in the face of growing de-privatization in the water sector in the province of Buenos Aires. The Buenos Aires Metropolitan Area is an important case study for research on water governance because it was intended to be the World Banks model for which other countries would strive to emulate when reforming and improving water services by means of private concessions. The first part of the thesis examines the political and social history of water cooperatives in Argentina and the effects of privatization on the cooperative model. The second part outlines the theoretical advantages and disadvantages of the governance model and positions these theories against the realities of an existing water cooperative and a poor peri-urban community that has a strong affinity for implementing the model in their community. The two case studies presented in this thesis help to elucidate why the water governance model is able to serve poor peri-urban communities that otherwise remain unserviced by the traditional public or private water governance models. This is significant if we are earnest about providing water and sanitation services to all. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

Cape Coast once a national capital of Ghana and its environs in recent years have constantly suffered perennial acute water shortage. The Brimsu dam which takes its supplies from the Kakum River with current production capacity of 1.4 × 104 m3/day cannot meet the water needs of the study area. The operating levels of the dam during crisis have reduced from 7.3 meters to 4.7 meters over the years with subsequent reduction in water production by 35%. Recently, the operating level has reduced further to about 3.5 meters with 60% reduction in water supply. This study evaluated alternative water resources to augment water supply and mitigate the impact of perennial water shortage. Among the alternatives considered are surface water from Twifo Prasso on the Pra River, groundwater supplies, and the desalination technology. Mean annual streamflow of Pra River at Twifo Prasso was used to evaluate the continuous availability and reliance on surface water. Hydrogeological assessment of geology underlying the study area vis-à-vis the existing borehole and their yields was used to evaluate groundwater potential. Desalination technology which is not currently in existence in the study area was considered based on available literature. Since the implementation of projects of this magnitude are the responsibilities of the central government through grants and loans, the study focuses on the cost implications of water from these alternatives to the final consumer in terms of affordability. In considering the cost of water from the various alternatives to per capita per day consumption in rural and urban settlements within the study area for a household of five, the cost of surface water remains the most affordable means of water supply, followed by groundwater. Borehole yields indicate that intensive exploitation of groundwater even though more expensive than surface water sources could minimize the effect of perennial water shortage and over dependence on surface water. The cost comparison analyses have shown that the cost of desalination using reverse osmosis is still expensive and could not compare favorably with the existing water supply alternatives. The analyses have thus confirmed the long held perception that "desalination is expensive and cannot be used in study area".

A water supply plan approach was used to investigate irrigation application on landscaped areas in Virginia with a focus on turfgrass. The economically-important turfgrass industry in Virginia should be proactive in conserving drinking water supplies to meet human consumption needs, especially in drought times. This thesis investigates current irrigation water supplies, water supply sustainability, and alternative water sources to meet irrigation demands and offers an insight on how potable water is unnecessarily consumed for non-potable irrigation needs. A Virginia evapotranspiration website was developed to offer a scientifically based source for efficient irrigation scheduling. The website was developed using a collaborative and user-centered design method, which included potential users in the process. The final website is hosted on the Virginia Tech website at http://www.turf.cses.vt.edu/Ervin/et_display.html and utilizes data from weather stations throughout the state. Evapotranspiration-based irrigation was tested at three case study sites in Blacksburg, Williamsburg and Norfolk, Virginia to assess potential water conservation. In Williamsburg, a 55% water savings was reported with evapotranspiration-based irrigation. In Blacksburg, slightly more water was applied on research greens irrigated based on evapotranspiration demand. Significantly less water was applied in Norfolk, compared to the evapotranspirationbased irrigated plots. The study also uncovered increased confidence to alter irrigation systems and the need to conduct irrigation audits when irrigating based on evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration-based irrigation, reclaimed water and harvested rainwater were investigated to determine feasibility for meeting irrigation demands, while reducing potable water consumption at four case study sites in Blacksburg, Fairfax, Williamsburg and Norfolk, Virginia. Due to the limited collection potential at the Blacksburg site, reclaimed water and harvested rainwater was not feasible. However, the on-site weatherstation could offer a unique opportunity to calculate evapotranspiration. In Fairfax, all three alternative water sources could be integrated to supply enough water to irrigate a soccer field and adjacent athletic fields and save an estimated $7,000 per season in potable water costs. Harvested rainwater at the Williamsburg site could supplement the irrigation pond and reduce reliance on groundwater. In Norfolk, reclaimed water use is economically feasible, but rainwater harvesting could meet the irrigation needs, while evapotranspiration-based irrigation is too labor intensive for homeowners. / Ph. D.

Background: Electricity tariffs charged by Eskom have sharply increased over the past three years, with a 25% annual increase approved by Nersa until April 2012. There is no indication on what to expect in the future with regard to electricity tariffs. Many South Africans are searching for ways to save on their monthly electricity bills by seeking out alternative water heating systems. Solar geysers became a popular investment option, but this might not be the best options available on the market. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to determine the most financially viable investment option in order to reduce electricity cost when it comes to water heating systems for use in households. This is done by comparing the capital expenditure and operational cost needed with the financial benefits generated by the investment, taking into consideration the size of the household. Design and method: A literature study was done on the different alternative water heating systems in order to obtain a better understanding of how these systems operate and what savings they can generate. Different investment appraisals were identified and a literature review was performed in order to identify the most appropriate investment appraisals for the purpose of this study. It was found that the net present value, equivalent annual annuity, internal rate of return, modified internal rate of return, accounting rate of return, discounted payback period and the economic value added were the best investment appraisal methods to use for the purpose of this study. Findings and conclusion: It was found that the five investment options identified in the literature review would all, to some extent, be financially viable to implement within households with high as well as low volume hot water consumption. All the investment appraisals gave positive outcomes. The conclusion was made that a saving will be generated on the monthly electricity bill no matter what alternative water heating system were to be installed in the place of a conventional geyser. Recommendations: It is recommended that a household with low volume hot water consumption should install a time switch as this investment option renders the highest IRR, MIRR, ARR and discounted payback period. The second best investment option for a household with low volume hot water consumption is a heat pump and the third best option is a gas geyser. For a household with high volume hot water consumption, the best investment options is again a time switch, as this renders the best IRR, MIRR, ARR and discounted payback period. The second best investment option is a heat pump, with a gas geyser as the third best investment option. Value of the research: This study focuses on five alternative water heating systems for a household within South Africa in times where electricity charges sharply increase. The financial viability of each of the alternatives is determined through various investment appraisals and the best option can be identified by comparing the outcomes of the alternatives. Furthermore, each individual is able to determine the viability of the alternatives by using the Excel model attached to this study and by inputting his/her own variables, where applicable. Research limitation: Limited literature was available on the different alternative water heating systems. No indication could be found of the maintenance cost of the different water heating systems. Assumptions had to be made with regard to households, although no two households are the same. Areas for further research: The same study could be performed, but with the focus on small businesses and large organisations. Furthermore, a study could be performed to determine the appropriate discount rate for individuals as well as the maintenance cost for water heating systems. / Thesis (MCom (Management Accountancy))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012

Background: Electricity tariffs charged by Eskom have sharply increased over the past three years, with a 25% annual increase approved by Nersa until April 2012. There is no indication on what to expect in the future with regard to electricity tariffs. Many South Africans are searching for ways to save on their monthly electricity bills by seeking out alternative water heating systems. Solar geysers became a popular investment option, but this might not be the best options available on the market. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to determine the most financially viable investment option in order to reduce electricity cost when it comes to water heating systems for use in households. This is done by comparing the capital expenditure and operational cost needed with the financial benefits generated by the investment, taking into consideration the size of the household. Design and method: A literature study was done on the different alternative water heating systems in order to obtain a better understanding of how these systems operate and what savings they can generate. Different investment appraisals were identified and a literature review was performed in order to identify the most appropriate investment appraisals for the purpose of this study. It was found that the net present value, equivalent annual annuity, internal rate of return, modified internal rate of return, accounting rate of return, discounted payback period and the economic value added were the best investment appraisal methods to use for the purpose of this study. Findings and conclusion: It was found that the five investment options identified in the literature review would all, to some extent, be financially viable to implement within households with high as well as low volume hot water consumption. All the investment appraisals gave positive outcomes. The conclusion was made that a saving will be generated on the monthly electricity bill no matter what alternative water heating system were to be installed in the place of a conventional geyser. Recommendations: It is recommended that a household with low volume hot water consumption should install a time switch as this investment option renders the highest IRR, MIRR, ARR and discounted payback period. The second best investment option for a household with low volume hot water consumption is a heat pump and the third best option is a gas geyser. For a household with high volume hot water consumption, the best investment options is again a time switch, as this renders the best IRR, MIRR, ARR and discounted payback period. The second best investment option is a heat pump, with a gas geyser as the third best investment option. Value of the research: This study focuses on five alternative water heating systems for a household within South Africa in times where electricity charges sharply increase. The financial viability of each of the alternatives is determined through various investment appraisals and the best option can be identified by comparing the outcomes of the alternatives. Furthermore, each individual is able to determine the viability of the alternatives by using the Excel model attached to this study and by inputting his/her own variables, where applicable. Research limitation: Limited literature was available on the different alternative water heating systems. No indication could be found of the maintenance cost of the different water heating systems. Assumptions had to be made with regard to households, although no two households are the same. Areas for further research: The same study could be performed, but with the focus on small businesses and large organisations. Furthermore, a study could be performed to determine the appropriate discount rate for individuals as well as the maintenance cost for water heating systems. / Thesis (MCom (Management Accountancy))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012

Orientadora: Profª. Drª. Luísa Helena dos Santos Oliveira / Coorientadora. Profª. Drª. Lúcia Helena Gomes Coelho / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal do ABC, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência e Tecnologia Ambiental, Santo André, 2018. / Os metais potencialmente tóxicos promovem a poluição dos compartimentos ar, solo e água e causam danos cumulativos aos ecossistemas por serem recalcitrantes e persistentes. Tecnologias alternativas como a biossorção e a fitorremediação são eficazes para remoção de metais da água. A fim de comparar estas duas tecnologias em ação, em escala laboratorial, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a eficiência da remoção dos metais tóxicos Cd e Pb, na concentração inicial de 4 g L-1, de soluções aquosas por duas espécies de macrófitas aquáticas, o Aguapé (Eichhornia sp.) e a Taboa (Typha sp.). Para o ensaio de biossorção as plantas foram lavadas em água corrente, secas naturalmente por 10 dias, seguidas de secagem em estufa, em seguida foram trituradas e peneiradas para padronização do tamanho da biomassa utilizada nos ensaios. A biomassa seca de cada planta foi mantida em contato com as soluções contaminadas com Cd e Pb em intervalos de tempo distintos, até 24 horas. Na fitorremediação as plantas foram lavadas com água corrente, permaneceram em contato com solução de hipoclorito de sódio e enxaguadas com água deionizada. Foram encaminhadas para a casa de vegetação da Universidade Federal do ABC em São Bernardo do Campo, onde permaneceram em contato com a solução nutritiva durante 21 dias para aclimatação. Após a aclimatação as plantas filhas foram coletadas e acondicionadas em frascos de polietileno com as soluções nutritivas contaminadas. Alíquotas foram retiradas em diferentes intervalos. Ao término da fitorremediação as plantas foram digeridas por via úmida do tipo Nitro-Perclórica para avaliação da concentração de metais acumulados em seus tecidos. Para ambos os tratamentos, os ensaios foram realizados em triplicatas e as amostras foram coletadas, filtradas e analisadas por ICP OES. Análises estatísticas foram realizadas utilizando o ANOVA e o Teste-t, com nível de significância de 5%. A remoção média por biossorção pelo Aguapé foi de 80,9% (Cd) e 51,4% (Pb), enquanto a Taboa removeu em média 58,4% (Cd) e 21,1% (Pb). Baseado nesses resultados, constatou-se, estatisticamente, que a biomassa seca do Aguapé tem maior capacidade de remoção de Cd e Pb quando comparada a da Taboa. Na fitorremediação os valores máximos de remoção porcentual, após 21 dias de ensaio, foram de 88,5% (Cd) e 42,6% (Pb) para o Aguapé e de 82,0% (Cd) e 42,3% (Pb) para a Taboa. Análises estatísticas indicam que não há diferenças significativas na remoção dos metais entre as macrófitas na tecnologia de fitorremediação. A análise dos metais retidos nos tecidos vegetais (q) do Aguapé apresentou os valores máximos de 18,8 mg g-1 (Cd) e de 8,6 mg g-1 (Pb) e a Taboa de 15,0 mg g-1 (Cd) e de 4,6 mg g-1 (Pb) na biossorção. Na fitorremediação a concentração na biomassa do Aguapé foi de 3,2 mg g-1 (Cd) e 4,28 mg g-1 (Pb) e de 5,0 mg g-1 (Cd) e 2,3 mg g-1 (Pb) na Taboa. Aparentemente, as biomassas secas apresentam um melhor desempenho na remoção de Cd e Pb. / Potentially toxic metals cause pollution of air, soil and water compartments and poses cumulative damages to the ecosystems for being recalcitrant and persistent. Alternative technologies such as biosorption and phytoremediation are effective for metal removal from water. In order to compare these two technologies, in a laboratory scale, the present work had as objective to evaluate the efficiency of the removal of the toxic metals Cd and Pb, at 4 mg L-1 initial concentration, of aqueous solutions by two species of aquatic macrophytes, Water hyacinth (Eichhornia sp.) and Cattail (Typha sp.). For biosorption assay the plants were washed in tap water, dried naturally for 10 days, followed by oven drying, then crushed and sieved to standardize the size of the biomass used in the tests. The dry biomass of each plant was kept in contact with the solutions contaminated with Cd and Pb at different time intervals, up to 24 hours. In phytoremediation the plants were washed with tap water, remained in contact with sodium hypochlorite solution and rinsed with deionized water. They were sent to the greenhouse of the Federal University of ABC in São Bernardo do Campo, where they remained in contact with the nutrient solution for 21 days for acclimatization. After acclimatization, the daughter plants were collected and conditioned in polyethylene bottles with contaminated nutrient solutions. Aliquots were withdrawn at different intervals. At the end of the phytoremediation the plants were wet-digested by Nitro-Perchloric type to evaluate the concentration of accumulated metals in their tissues. For both treatments, the tests were performed in triplicates ante the samples were collected, filtered and analyzed by ICP OES. Statistical analyzes were performed using ANOVA and the t-Test, with a significance level of 5%. For biosorption, the mean removal by Water hyacinth was 80.9% (Cd) and 51,4% (Pb), while Cattail removed on average 58,4% (Cd) and 21.1% (Pb). Based on these results, it was statistically verified that the dry biomass of Water hyacinth has greater capacity of Cd and Pb removal when compared to Cattail. In phytoremediation the maximum percentage removal values, after 21 days of testing, were 88.5% (Cd) and 42.6% (Pb) for Water hyacinth and 82.0% (Cd) and 42.3% (Pb) for Cattail. Statistical analyses indicate that there are no significant differences in metals removal among macrophytes in phytoremediation technology. The analysis of the metals retained in plants tissues (q) of Water hyacinth showed the maximum values of 18.8 mg g-1 (Cd) and 8.6 mg g-1 (Pb) and Cattail 15.0 mg g-1 (Cd) and 4.6 mg g-1 (Pb) in the biosorption. In the phytoremediation, the concentration in the biomass of Water hyacinth was 3.2 mg g-1 (Cd) and 4.28 mg g-1 (Pb) and 5.0 mg g-1 (Cd) and 2.3 mg g-1 (Pb) in Cattail. Apparently, dry biomass exhibits better performance in Cd and Pb removal.