Amphibian populations around the world have been declining rapidly over the past two decades, particularly in upland regions of the neotropics, where a fungal pathogen that causes chytridiomycosis has decimated many regions. Despite increasing concern over these and other dramatic losses of biodiversity, little information is available on the overall ecological effects of amphibian declines. As part of the Tropical Amphibian Declines in Streams (TADS) project, I quantified major energy fluxes, secondary production, and macroinvertebrate community structure for two consecutive years in four stream reaches in the Panamanian uplands, two with healthy amphibian populations and two that had experienced amphibian declines in 1996-1997. Despite relatively high year-round inputs of allochthonous organic materials, storage of detritus in the stream channels was low compared to streams in temperate regions. Organic matter inputs and standing stocks were similar between pre- and post-decline streams, and did not differ appreciably with season. Seston export was a major energetic flux in these systems, and differences in the nutritional quality (C:N) of seston in pre- and post-decline streams suggested that the loss of tadpoles may decrease the quality of materials exported from these headwaters. At coarse scales (e.g., total abundance) macroinvertebrate assemblages were similar between pre- and post-decline sites, but there were noticeable differences in production and functional and taxonomic structure. Pre-decline reaches had higher shredder production and post-decline streams had higher scraper production. In addition, taxonomic differences between pre- and post-decline streams were also evident, with a shift from dominance of smaller scraper taxa in pre-decline sites (i.e. Psephenus) to larger-bodied scrapers such as Petrophila in post-decline reaches. Filterer production was dominated by hydropsychid caddisflies in pre-decline reaches, whereas black flies dominated filterer production in post-decline reaches. Overall, detritus and detritivores dominated energy flow in all study reaches. However, scrapers were well represented in these systems and appeared to be food-limited, particularly in pre-decline reaches where grazing tadpoles were still abundant. During the second year of my study, predicted amphibian declines began at the pre-decline site. The loss of amphibians through this year resulted in subtle shifts in macroinvertebrate functional and taxonomic structure, which correlated with changes in available food resources. Some grazing mayflies responded positively to declining tadpole populations and subsequent increased periphyton resources, suggesting a potential for some degree of functional redundancy in these systems. However, other grazers, such as the water penny beetle Psephenus, showed no response during the period of study. My results indicate that responses of remaining consumers to tadpole declines in streams may not be evident at some coarse scales (e.g., total abundance, biomass). However, differences in secondary production at the community and the functional level, along with assemblage structure changes were evident, with some individual taxa responding relatively quickly. Long-term studies in these same stream reaches will further illuminate the ultimate ecological consequences of these dramatic and sudden losses of consumer diversity.

This thesis engages with urban ecology through the lens of garden amphibians within a community in Cape Town. The study explores habitat and maintenance features associated with amphibian presence and the social processes underpinning attitudes towards amphibians, with the aim of strengthening knowledge underpinning the "what" (knowledge of natural requirements), "Why" (social drivers for urban landscape form and management), and the "how" (working with people, for garden biodiversity initiatives. To explore the "Why" component, a social survey was conducted with 192 members of the community. One‐way anova and correspondence analysis were used to explore the relationship between values, culture, knowledge and memories of early childhood experiences against a general attitude towards frogs and toads. The findings are consistent with the theoretical framework of Connectedness To Nature where positive attitudes are supported by normative values, cultural beliefs, knowledge and positive experiences with care‐givers and role‐models. The garden habitat component of the study sought to explore the technical questions of the "What" requirement for amphibian presence in gardens. It was loosely based on the BIMBY tool with adaptations for context and targeted species. 50 gardens were visited and surveyed. They were divided into two groups for comparison: Those in which residents reported amphibian presence, and those which did not. Results indicate that the cape river frog (A. fuscigula) and clicking stream frog (S. grayii), are attracted to gardens with moderate to dense vegetation at groundcover level. Gardens with moderately planted beds were more likely to report frogs if they had additional resources, in particular, ponds and mulch. The "How" question brought together the two themes in a discussion on citizen mobilization and ways in which community groups are successfully implementing urban ecology conservation and reconciliation strategies. This work is important for urban nature conservation which seeks to engage private land‐owners (garden enthusiasts) and community and citizen groups in implementing urban biodiversity projects.

Forest-dwelling amphibians contribute to diverse ecosystem services in Ontario but are threatened by habitat degradation and fragmentation. My thesis investigated key amphibian habitats in Ontario forests with the goal of providing resource managers with tools and techniques to protect and restore amphibian populations. I primarily focussed on amphibians that breed in temporary forested wetlands known as vernal pools, as these wetlands are overlooked in provincial legislature and particularly sensitive to changes in land-use and climate. First, I investigated the distribution and community structure of vernal pools in forests of eastern Georgian Bay, Lake Huron. I developed an accurate remote sensing technique to map vernal pool habitat using readily available spatial data and found that undocumented vernal pools accounted for over half of the wetlands in the region. I documented the importance of the length of pool inundation (hydroperiod) and canopy openness in determining the composition of vernal pool amphibian assemblages. In particular, pools with short hydroperiods and closed canopies tended to support only early breeders and canopy generalists. Next, I used two case studies to demonstrate the usefulness of existing amphibian occurrence datasets, specifically for the improvement of habitat mapping and monitoring. For the first case study, I created habitat suitability models using known locations of the endangered Jefferson salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonianum). Models yielded good discriminatory ability between presence and pseudo-absence data and confirmed the importance of deciduous/mixed forests as key habitats. Habitat suitability maps revealed potential undocumented habitat in the Greenbelt region of Ontario. For the second case study, I developed optimizations of time and effort for a salamander monitoring program. I verified the need for at least ten years’ worth of monitoring data for reliable trend detection and demonstrated that the precision and accuracy of occupancy estimates are dependent on the allocation of effort across monitoring sites and repetitions. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Amphibian declines represent one of the hallmarks of the current biodiversity crisis. While there are many factors responsible for amphibian declines, the most significant threats are habitat loss and degradation. This Ph.D. thesis describes amphibian habitat use in Ontario forests and provides resource managers with tools and techniques to protect habitat. Using satellite imagery, I developed a strategy to map small amphibian breeding wetlands (vernal pools) in forests of eastern Georgian Bay. I also identified the importance of pool drying times and forest canopy cover to the amphibians that breed in these wetlands. In the fragmented forest patches of southern Ontario, I mapped suitable habitat for the endangered Jefferson salamander and identified the importance of large deciduous/mixed forests. Lastly, I assessed the effectiveness of a long-term salamander monitoring program in southern Ontario and demonstrated the use of techniques to optimize the allocation of effort and maximize the accuracy of monitoring results.

How the eggs and larbae of the Utah amphibians differ from each other is the problem to be considered in this paper. Certain problems are yet to be answered. One problem is that the larvae of Rana pretiosa subsp. From utah fit the description of the Nevada form, Rana pretiosa luteiventris, as described by Thompson (1913) and not the description of Rana pretiosa pretiosa as set forth by Svihla (1935). Another problem is that the adults, tadpoles, and eggs of Rana pipiens brachycephala and Rana onca are strikingly similar. Rana fisheri of the Las Vegas Valley in nevada and Rana onca are rather similar. There are fourteen species of utah amphibians. Only twelve of these will be considered here as two species are comparatively rare and material was unobtainable for this study. Variations from previous descriptions of some of the eggs and tadpoles are noted therein. A description of the eggs and tadpoles of Rana onca, Bufo woodhousii microscaphus, Ambystoma tigrinum nebulosum, the eggs of Scaphiopus hammondii intermontanus and the tdpoles of Bufo boreas boreas are advanced for the first time.

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Amphibian populations have undergone unprecedented declines in recent decades. Many of these declines are due to the spread of the cutaneous fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), which causes the disease chytridiomycosis. The Panamanian golden frog (Atelopus zeteki) has not been seen in the wild since Bd spread through western Panama. In response to initial declines, golden frogs were collected from wild populations and placed in captive colonies with the goal of future reintroductions. An understanding of this species' natural defense mechanisms against Bd is needed for reintroduction to be successful. Previous studies indicate that cutaneous bacteria are an important defense mechanism for some amphibians and applying antifungal bacteria to the skin of Bd-susceptible amphibians (probiotic therapy) can prevent chytridiomycosis. Therefore, the goals of my dissertation were to characterize the bacterial community of A. zeteki and determine if probiotic therapy could be used to prevent chytridiomycosis in this species. I initially characterized the bacterial community of wild and captive golden frogs using samples collected prior to the initial declines and after approximately eight years in captivity. I found that the community structure of the microbiota was significantly different between wild and captive frogs; however, the offspring of the original captive frogs still shared 70% of their microbial community with wild frogs. Then, I characterized the Bd-inhibitory properties of 484 bacteria isolated from 11 species of free-living Panamanian amphibians. I found a large proportion of bacteria (75.2%) had the ability to inhibit Bd and this trait was widely distributed among bacterial taxa, although there was also significant variation within bacterial genera in their ability to inhibit Bd growth. I then experimentally tested the ability of four of these isolates to prevent chytridiomycosis in captive golden frogs. None of them successfully prevented infection; however, there were several frogs that cleared infection and this was correlated with composition of the bacteria initially present on their skin. Overall these results demonstrate that the structure of microbial communities of A. zeteki are important to host health and building on this might provide the best hope for reintroducing this iconic species back to its native habitat. / Ph. D.

The non-game wildlife trade poses a risk to our natural landscape, natural heritage, economy, and security. Specifically, the trade in non-game reptiles and amphibians exploits native populations, and is likely not sustainable for many species. Exotic amphibian and reptile species pose risk of invasion and directly or indirectly alter the native landscape. The extent of non-game amphibian and reptile trade is not fully understood and is poorly documented. To quantitatively describe the trade in Texas, I solicited data from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service's (USFWS) Law Enforcement Management Information System (LEMIS) and Texas Parks and Wildlife Department's (TPWD) non-game dealer permits. I surveyed amphibian and reptile pet owners, breeders, Internet sites, pet shops, and meat and seafood establishments by visits, electronic surveys, and observations. The trade in exotic species of amphibians and reptiles in the state of Texas was found to be popular in two ways; the importation of wildlife products and sale of live specimens for pets. Persisting in the pet trade were species known to be exotic, a problem made worse by lack of regulations governing the import, export, and keeping of exotic species. Trade in wild collected native species was primarily for export to foreign countries. Collection of turtles from the wild in Texas was heavy until 2008, when TPWD restricted collection to private waters. Collection of other species from the wild was minimal, with the exception of the Western Diamond-backed Rattlsnake (Crotalus atrox) for rattlesnake roundups. Native species were found to exist in the pet trade, but primarily as genetic color variants that do not occur in the wild, an indication that captive breeding may be relieving pressures on wild caught specimens. Minor changes in reporting requirements and permitting systems at the state and federal level would improve the management of exotic and native amphibians and reptiles that persist in the trade. Changes that include standardized taxonomic reporting requirements at state and federal level, streamlined permitting system for individuals wishing to collect from the wild in Texas, bag limits and seasons for wild collection, increased reporting requirements for owners of exotics, and enforcement of reporting errors would aid in management of exotic and native amphibians and reptiles in the trade.