Inhibition of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) or monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), the chief degradative enzymes of N-arachidonoyl ethanolamine (anandamide; AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), respectively, elicits no or partial substitution for Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in drug discrimination procedures. However, combined inhibition of both enzymes fully substitutes for THC, as well as produces a full constellation of cannabimimetic effects. Because no published report to date have investigated whether an inhibitor of endocannabinoid hydrolysis will serve as a discriminative stimulus, the purpose of this doctoral dissertation was to investigate whether C57BL/6J mice would learn to discriminate SA-57 (4-[2-(4-Chlorophenyl)ethyl]-1-piperidinecarboxylic acid 2-(methylamino)-2-oxoethyl ester), a dual inhibitor of FAAH and MAGL, from vehicle in the drug discrimination paradigm. Also, we sought to determine whether inhibiting both enzymes, or inhibiting one enzyme was necessary to generate the SA-57 discriminative stimulus. Initial experiments showed that SA-57 fully substituted for either CP 55,940 ((-)-cis-3-[2-Hydroxy-4-(1,1-dimethylheptyl)phenyl]-trans-4-(3-hydroxypropyl)cyclohexanol), a high efficacy CB1 receptor agonist in C57BL/6J, mice or AEA in FAAH (-/-) mice. The majority (i.e., 23 of 24) of subjects achieved criteria of discriminating SA-57 (10 mg/kg) from vehicle within 40 sessions, with full generalization occurring 1-2 h post injection. CP 55,940, the dual FAAH-MAGL inhibitor JZL195 (4-nitrophenyl 4-(3-phenoxybenzyl)piperazine-1-carboxylate), the MAGL inhibitors MJN110 (2,5-dioxopyrrolidin-1-yl 4-(bis(4-chlorophenyl)methyl)piperazine-1-carboxylate) and JZL184 (4-[Bis(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)hydroxymethyl]-1-piperidinecarboxylic acid 4-nitrophenyl ester) fully substituted for SA-57. Although, the FAAH inhibitors PF-3845 and URB597 did not substitute for SA-57, PF3845 produced a two-fold leftward shift in the MJN110 substitution dose-response curve. In addition, the CB1 receptor antagonist rimonabant blocked the generalization of SA-57 as well as substitution of CP 55,940, JZL195, MJN110, JZL184 for the SA-57 discriminative stimulus. These findings taken together indicate that the inhibition of endocannabinoid-regulating enzymes serve as breaks to prevent overstimulation of CB1 receptors, and MAGL inhibition is the major driving force for generating the SA-57 discriminative stimulus.

A neuroimunomodulação é um ramo da ciência que estuda as inter-relações existentes entre o SNC e o SI. O termo inter-relações foi empregado porque, sabe-se hoje serem estas relações bidirecionais. Conhecendo-se a existência desta comunicação, não é difícil de se supor que substâncias que atuem no sistema neuro-endócrino tenham a capacidade de influenciar as respostas imunes seja por uma ação neuroimune indireta ou por outra que se faça diretamente nas células imunes. Os canabinóides (endógenos, derivados da planta e sintéticos) apresentam um amplo espectro de ações, dentre as quais cabe destacar aquelas sobre o comportamento (ansiedade e medo), o sistema neuro-endócrino (ativação do eixo HHA) e imune (resposta imune inata e adquirida). Estes efeitos são geralmente atribuídos à ligação dos canabinóides a receptores específicos presentes no SNC (receptores CB1) e na periferia (receptores CB2). Neste sentido, buscamos neste trabalho avaliar os efeitos da Anandamida (AEA), uma agonista canabinóide endógeno, sobre o comportamento, a ativação do eixo HHA e alguns parâmetros de atividade imune adquirida, e o fizemos à luz de mecanismos neuroimunomodulatórios. Nossos resultados mostraram que os efeitos da AEA sobre o comportamento são dependentes da dose e, também, do tempo de latência para as observações. Neste sentido, 10 minutos após a administração de doses crescentes de AEA observou-se, tanto no campo aberto como no LCE, um efeito que seguiu um padrão de curva em U invertido dependente da dose. Nossos resultados mostraram, também, que a AEA na dose de 0,1mg/kg administrada 90 minutos antes das observações, aumentou o tempo gasto pelos animais em movimento na zona periférica e diminui o tempo gasto em movimento na zona central do campo aberto. Mostrou-se, ainda, que a AEA na dose de 0,1mg/kg aumentou acentuadamente os níveis séricos de corticosterona nos animais medidos 45 e 90 minutos após a administração. Finalmente, mostrou-se que uma dose de 0,1mg/kg de AEA previamente a uma imunização com OVA promoveu um aumento da reposta de hipersensibilidade do tipo tardia (DTH) e um aumento na porcentagem de proliferação de células T CD4+. Estes resultados em seu conjunto permitem sugerir que a AEA (0,1mg/kg) administrada 90 minutos antes das observações tenha se comportado como um estressor químico, promovendo efeito semelhante ao de ansiogênicos no campo aberto e aumentando os níveis séricos de corticosterona; esses níveis aumentados de corticosterona teriam sido os responsáveis pelo aumento da resposta imune celular (Th1) observada. / Neuroimmunomodulation is a field of research concerned with the relationships between the CNS and the IS. The term relationship is frequently employed because it is assumed that such communication is bidirectional. In this regard, if we consider that this communication exists, it should be accetable that substances acting on the neuroendocrine system are able of modifying immune responses, either acting via a neuroimmune indirect pathway, or acting directly on immune cells. Cannabinoids (endogenous, plant derived, and synthetic) show a large spectrum of actions over the body. We emphasize here, behavioral (anxiety and fear), endocrine (HPA axis activation), and immune (innate and adaptative immunity) effects. These effects are generally attributed to cannabinoid bind to specific receptors present on CNS (CB1 receptors) and in the periphery (CB2 receptors). In this sense, we evaluated Anandamide (AEA, an endogenous cannabinoid agonist) effects, on behavior, HPA axis activation, and parameters of adaptative immunity, particularly neuroimmune relationships. Briefly, our results show that the AEA effects on behavior are dependent on the dose and time. Thus, 10 minutes after injection of growing increasing doses of AEA, we found in the open field and plus maze an inverted U-shape dose-response for AEA which is characteristic of cannabinoids in this type of behavioral evaluation. Additionally we show, that AEA 0,1mg/kg after 90 minutes of administration increased the time spent in the peripheral zone, and decreased the time spent in the central zone of the open field. Furthermore, we found that AEA 0.1mg/kg strongly increased the serum levels of corticosterone after 45 and 90 minutes of administration. Finally, we show that AEA 0.1mg/kg prior to immunization promoted an increase of delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) and an increase in the percentage of CD4+ T cell proliferation. These results allow us to suggest that AEA 0.1mg/kg 90 minutes after administration acted as a chemical stressor, promoting an anxiogenic-like effect in the open field, and increasing the serum levels of corticosterone. Additionally, the increased levels of corticosterone at the moment of antigenic exposition could be responsible for the increased cell-mediated immunity (Th1) observed.

A neuroimunomodulação é um ramo da ciência que estuda as inter-relações existentes entre o SNC e o SI. O termo inter-relações foi empregado porque, sabe-se hoje serem estas relações bidirecionais. Conhecendo-se a existência desta comunicação, não é difícil de se supor que substâncias que atuem no sistema neuro-endócrino tenham a capacidade de influenciar as respostas imunes seja por uma ação neuroimune indireta ou por outra que se faça diretamente nas células imunes. Os canabinóides (endógenos, derivados da planta e sintéticos) apresentam um amplo espectro de ações, dentre as quais cabe destacar aquelas sobre o comportamento (ansiedade e medo), o sistema neuro-endócrino (ativação do eixo HHA) e imune (resposta imune inata e adquirida). Estes efeitos são geralmente atribuídos à ligação dos canabinóides a receptores específicos presentes no SNC (receptores CB1) e na periferia (receptores CB2). Neste sentido, buscamos neste trabalho avaliar os efeitos da Anandamida (AEA), uma agonista canabinóide endógeno, sobre o comportamento, a ativação do eixo HHA e alguns parâmetros de atividade imune adquirida, e o fizemos à luz de mecanismos neuroimunomodulatórios. Nossos resultados mostraram que os efeitos da AEA sobre o comportamento são dependentes da dose e, também, do tempo de latência para as observações. Neste sentido, 10 minutos após a administração de doses crescentes de AEA observou-se, tanto no campo aberto como no LCE, um efeito que seguiu um padrão de curva em U invertido dependente da dose. Nossos resultados mostraram, também, que a AEA na dose de 0,1mg/kg administrada 90 minutos antes das observações, aumentou o tempo gasto pelos animais em movimento na zona periférica e diminui o tempo gasto em movimento na zona central do campo aberto. Mostrou-se, ainda, que a AEA na dose de 0,1mg/kg aumentou acentuadamente os níveis séricos de corticosterona nos animais medidos 45 e 90 minutos após a administração. Finalmente, mostrou-se que uma dose de 0,1mg/kg de AEA previamente a uma imunização com OVA promoveu um aumento da reposta de hipersensibilidade do tipo tardia (DTH) e um aumento na porcentagem de proliferação de células T CD4+. Estes resultados em seu conjunto permitem sugerir que a AEA (0,1mg/kg) administrada 90 minutos antes das observações tenha se comportado como um estressor químico, promovendo efeito semelhante ao de ansiogênicos no campo aberto e aumentando os níveis séricos de corticosterona; esses níveis aumentados de corticosterona teriam sido os responsáveis pelo aumento da resposta imune celular (Th1) observada. / Neuroimmunomodulation is a field of research concerned with the relationships between the CNS and the IS. The term relationship is frequently employed because it is assumed that such communication is bidirectional. In this regard, if we consider that this communication exists, it should be accetable that substances acting on the neuroendocrine system are able of modifying immune responses, either acting via a neuroimmune indirect pathway, or acting directly on immune cells. Cannabinoids (endogenous, plant derived, and synthetic) show a large spectrum of actions over the body. We emphasize here, behavioral (anxiety and fear), endocrine (HPA axis activation), and immune (innate and adaptative immunity) effects. These effects are generally attributed to cannabinoid bind to specific receptors present on CNS (CB1 receptors) and in the periphery (CB2 receptors). In this sense, we evaluated Anandamide (AEA, an endogenous cannabinoid agonist) effects, on behavior, HPA axis activation, and parameters of adaptative immunity, particularly neuroimmune relationships. Briefly, our results show that the AEA effects on behavior are dependent on the dose and time. Thus, 10 minutes after injection of growing increasing doses of AEA, we found in the open field and plus maze an inverted U-shape dose-response for AEA which is characteristic of cannabinoids in this type of behavioral evaluation. Additionally we show, that AEA 0,1mg/kg after 90 minutes of administration increased the time spent in the peripheral zone, and decreased the time spent in the central zone of the open field. Furthermore, we found that AEA 0.1mg/kg strongly increased the serum levels of corticosterone after 45 and 90 minutes of administration. Finally, we show that AEA 0.1mg/kg prior to immunization promoted an increase of delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) and an increase in the percentage of CD4+ T cell proliferation. These results allow us to suggest that AEA 0.1mg/kg 90 minutes after administration acted as a chemical stressor, promoting an anxiogenic-like effect in the open field, and increasing the serum levels of corticosterone. Additionally, the increased levels of corticosterone at the moment of antigenic exposition could be responsible for the increased cell-mediated immunity (Th1) observed.

Atherosclerosis is a disease characterized by plaque formation due to an accumulation of fat, cholesterol, and immune cells in the walls of arteries. If a plaque ruptures, an occlusive thrombosis may form that causes either a heart attack or stroke. Macrophages express CB-2 receptors, and are one type of immune cell that plays a role in plaque destabilization and rupture. Endocannabinoids anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonyl glycerol (2-AG) have been found to have activity on CB-1 and CB-2 receptors throughout the body and immune system. In this study, we investigated several sample preparation options for the LC-MS quantification of AEA and 2-AG from plasma and aortic tissue. The extractions considered included liquid–liquid (LLE), solid-phase (SPE), and supported liquid (SLE). Some extraction protocols yielded high analyte recovery and prevention of 1-AG/2-AG isomerization. Our results indicate that a liquid-liquid extraction using toluene yields the highest recovery for both analytes, coupled with low ionization suppression in the mass spectrometer. This extraction and corresponding LC-MS/MS assay provides a simple, high throughput mechanism for the quantification of 2-AG and AEA in matrices relevant to the study of endocannabinoids’ role in atherosclerosis.

Endocannabinoids, and the fatty acid amides from which they are a member, have garnered greater scientific interest in the last two decades due to the cannabimimetic properties of these endogenous molecules. The most well-known of these is Anandamide, which has thus far been discovered in several species of animal ranging from C. elegans, fruit flies, to bovine and humans. Because of the importance and increasing impact of these compounds a brief overview is first presented herein, with a major focus on the N-acyldopamines due to the direct impact they potentially pose to human physiology. Secondly, the detection and quantitative analysis of these molecules was conducted in the recently fully genome sequenced honeybee and red flour beetle, due in part to recent research showing the existence of these molecules in D. melanogaster, to which no known cannabinoid receptors had been found to date. Interest in these potentially new model organisms may provide additional insight not only into the endocannabinoids but also as potential targets for protection of honeybees and pest control of red flour beetles. Utilizing established HPLC-MS methods for the detection and quantification of these compounds provided a series of endogenous results for these molecules within both farmed and feral honeybees and the red flour beetle. Additionally, a protein sequence and motif homology study with a newly discovered acyltransferase from Fruit flies shows strong evidence that a similar enzyme is expressed in both honeybees and red flour beetles. Therefore providing future steps for the continuation of this research to better elucidate and quantify the endocannabinoids as well as determine the biosynthetic metabolism within these organisms.

Anandamide (AEA) is an endogenous fatty acid which activates the same cannabinoid receptors as ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol, the psychoactive substance in marijuana. In vivo, anandamide exerts a number of actions including effects upon pain and inflammation. However, AEA has a short duration of action since it is rapidly metabolised, primarily by the intracellular enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). The general aim of this thesis has been to identify and characterize compounds capable of preventing the metabolism of anandamide. The chemical approach was based on the endogenous anti-inflammatory compound palmitoylethanolamide (PEA), a compound related to anandamide with the ability to inhibit anandamide degradation by substrate competition, but without the ability to directly activate cannabinoid receptors. A number of compounds were identified as inhibitors of rat brain FAAH in the initial in vitro studies, without having major affinity for the cannabinoid receptors. In particular, palmitoylisopropylamide (PIA) was found to reduce the metabolism of AEA in intact C6 glioma cells with potency similar to the prototypical AEA reuptake inhibitor AM404. This compound was in addition found to exert less effect upon C6 glioma cell proliferation than either AM404 or the closely related uptake inhibitor VDM11. To evaluate if PIA was effective in vivo, a model of mast cell dependent inflammation, oedema of the ear following local injection of compound 48/80, was set up using anaesthetised mice. Initially, a CB2 cannabinoid receptor selective agonist was used to probe the model and demonstrated to produce an anti-oedema effect. In contrast, the compound was inactive in vitro in skin slice preparations. PIA showed a similar pattern, although there was a large variation in responses which affected the significance of the result obtained, as did the vehicle used to dissolve the compound. Taken together, the present data would suggest that PIA can inhibit the degradation of AEA without having deleterious effects upon cell proliferation or affinity for the cannabinoid receptors. Further experimentation is necessary to elucidate the usefulness of this compound in vivo.

Anti-inflammatory drugs are a widely used class of therapeutic agents, but the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) is hampered by their gastrointestinal side-effects. Recent reports that cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors may cause cardiovascular events underline the importance of identifying new therapeutic strategies for the treatment of inflammation. One such target could be agents modifying the endogenous cannabinoid (endocannabinoid) system, since there is evidence that this system plays a role in our natural defence against inflammation. The levels of the endocannabinoid anandamide (arachidonoyl ethanolamide, AEA) are low under normal conditions, and stand under strict regulatory control of synthesising and degrading enzymes. Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) is the main enzyme degrading AEA, hydrolysing it to ethanolamine and arachidonic acid. The focus of this thesis lies in exploring the pharmacology of FAAH to evaluate its possibilities as a target for new anti-inflammatory drugs. In Papers I and II, the effects of the ambient pH on the properties of FAAH were investigated, since tissue pH is known to decrease under inflammatory conditions. In homogenates, it was found that the activity of FAAH decreased as the assay pH was decreased, consistent with the known pH profile of the enzyme. More importantly, the sensitivity of the enzyme to inhibition by FAAH inhibitors changed. In particular, the sensitivity of the enzyme to inhibition by the NSAID ibuprofen increased seventeen-fold as the assay pH decreased from 8.37 to 5.28. A similar pattern was found using intact C6 glioma cells when the extracellular, but not the intracellular pH was reduced. Thus, at an extracellular pH value of 6.2, (R)-ibuprofen, (S)-flurbiprofen and (R,S)-flurbiprofen inhibited the metabolism of AEA with IC50 values of 26, 14 and 15 µM, respectively. These values are in theory reachable upon normal dosing of the compounds. In Paper III, the effect of the selective FAAH inhibitor URB597 and the NSAID indomethacin were investigated in vivo upon the oedema response to carrageenan administration in the paw of anaesthetised mice. Both compounds reduced the oedema in a manner completely blocked by the CB2 receptor antagonist SR144528. In Paper IV, the effect of inflammation upon endocannabinoid synthesis was investigated in mice. Lipopolysaccharide-induced pulmonary inflammation was found not to affect the release of AEA to any obvious extent, and did not change the activities of the AEA synthesising enzymes N-acyl transferase or N-acyl phosphatidylethanolamine phospholipase D, or of FAAH in lung tissue. The results of this thesis would suggest that FAAH inhibitors can produce anti-inflammatory effects, and that the endocannabinoid system contributes to the actions of the NSAID indomethacin in the carrageenan model of inflammation, but that an increased endocannabinoid synthesis (a prerequisite for FAAH inhibition as a therapeutic strategy) is not an obligatory response to an inflammatory stimulus.

Anandamide (arachidonoyl ethanolamide, AEA) and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG) exert most of their actions by binding to cannabinoid receptors. The effects of the endocannabinoids are short-lived due to rapid cellular accumulation and metabolism, for AEA, primarily by the enzymes fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). This has led to the hypothesis that by inhibition of the cellular processing of AEA, beneficial effects in conditions such as pain and inflammation can be enhanced. The overall aim of the present thesis has been to examine the mechanisms involved in the cellular processing of AEA and how they can be influenced pharmacologically by both synthetic natural compounds. Liposomes, artificial membranes, were used in paper I to study the membrane retention of AEA. The AEA retention mimicked the early properties of AEA accumulation, such as temperature-dependency and saturability. In paper II, FAAH was blocked by a selective inhibitor, URB597, and reduced the accumulation of AEA into RBL2H3 basophilic leukaemia cells by approximately half. Treating intact cells with the tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein, an isoflavone found in soy plants and known to disrupt caveolae-related endocytosis, reduced the AEA accumulation by half, but in combination with URB597 no further decrease was seen. Further on, the effects of genistein upon uptake were secondary to inhibition of FAAH. The ability to inhibit the accumulation and metabolism of AEA was shared by several flavonoids (shown in paper III). In paper IV, the isoflavone biochanin A and URB597 had effects in vivo, in a model of persistent pain, effects decreased by the cannabinoid receptor 1 antagonist AM251. In paper VI, the cellular processing of the endocannabinoid metabolites following degradation was examined, a mechanism poorly understood. It was found that nitric oxide (NO) donors significantly increased the retention of tritium in cell membranes following incubation with either tritiated AEA or 2-AG. Further experiments revealed that the effect of NO donors mainly involves the arachidonate part of the molecules. Inhibition of FAAH completely reduced the effect of NO donors in cells with a large FAAH component, indicating that the effects were downstream of the enzyme. These results suggest that the cellular processing of endocannabinoids can be affected in a manner of different ways by pharmacological manipulation in vitro and that naturally occurring flavonoid compounds can interact with the endocannabinoid system.

Endocannabinoid and immune system alterations at moderate (18 m/min) and endurance (32 m/min) exercise intensities were assessed and compared to controls. Rats were exercised for 60 minutes/day, 5 days/week for 16 weeks. Immune effector cell proportions (T cell subtypes, B cells, NK cells, and neutrophils) and endocannabinoid serum levels were determined. Anandamide (ANA) and 2 arachidonyl-glycerol (2-AG) serum levels increased with endurance type of exercise. mRNA expression of the CB1 receptor increased together with ANA in the same group. Apoptotic index increased while immune effector cells responded divergently. B lymphocyte percentage decreased while T lymphocyte and NK cell percentage increased in blood. CD8+ subtypes increased whereas CD11b+ cell and CD25+ cell numbers decreased in the spleen in the endurance type of exercise group. Rats were grouped as the control, the endurance type of exercise, the AM281 (CB1 receptor antagonist) and the AM281+AM630 (CB2 receptor antagonist) groups in the second part of the study. Flow cytometry and microarray analyses of the spleen and the thymus were conducted. Endurance type of exercise associated significantly to immunological changes particularly to that of the T lymphocytes. T lymphocytes increased whereas cytolytic T lymphocytes decreased in blood. T cell and double positive T cell percentages significantly increased in the spleen. Activated T cells and NK like T cells furthermore decreased in the spleen. AM281 and/or AM630 could partially reverse the effect of exercise in blood but not in the spleen. Alterations in the thymus were not observed. Exercise altered 302 genes, some of them related with the immune system. Up-regulation of heat-shock protein coding genes was the most significant ones.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Treatment with antipsychotic drugs may cause tardive dyskinesia in humans and orofacial dyskinesia in rodents. Although the dopaminergic system in basal ganglia has been implicated in these movement disorders, their underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In recent years, the identification of high density of CB1 cannabinoid receptors within the basal ganglia has suggested a potential role for endocannabinoids in the control of basal ganglia-related movement disorders. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate whether CB1 receptors are involved in haloperidol-induced orofacial dyskinesia in rats. Adult male rats were treated with haloperidol decanoate (38 mg/kg, i.m., single administration). After 24 days, the animals were submitted to stereotaxic surgery for insertion of cannulas on right ventricle. After recovery, the effect of anandamide (6 nmol, i.c.v.) and/or the CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716A (30 μg, i.c.v.) on haloperidol-induced VCMs was assessed. Anandamide reversed haloperidol-induced VCMs. SR141716A (30 μg, i.c.v.) did not alter haloperidol-induced VCM per se, but prevented the effect of anandamide on VCM in rats. In conclusion, our results show that activation of CB1 receptor may prevent haloperidol-induced VCMs in rats, implicating cannabinoid signaling via CB1 receptor in orofacial dyskinesia. / O tratamento com antipsicóticos pode causar discinesia tardia em humanos e discinesia orofacial em roedores. Embora a via dopaminérgica nigroestriatal tem sido implicada nestas alterações motoras, seus mecanismos continuam não completamente esclarecidos. Recentemente, a identificação da alta densidade de receptores canabinóides (CB1) nos gânglios da base tem sugerido que os canabinoides possuem um papel importante no controle das desordens de movimento. Desta forma, o objetivo do presente estudo foi investigar se os receptores CB1 estão envolvidos na discinesia orofacial induzida por haloperidol em ratos. Ratos machos adultos receberam decanoato de haloperidol (38 mg/kg, i.m., administração única). Após 24 dias os mesmos foram submetidos a cirurgia estereotáxica para a implantação de cânula no ventrículo direito. Após um período de recuperação, o efeito da anandamida (agonista canabinóide) (6 nmol, i.c.v.) e/ou do antagonista do receptor CB1, SR141716A (30 μg, i.c.v.), sobre os MMVs foi analisado. A anandamida reverteu os MMVs induzidos por haloperidol. O SR141716A (30 μg, i.c.v.) per se não alterou os MMVs induzidos por haloperidol, mas preveniu o efeito da anandamida sobre os MMVs em ratos. Em conclusão, nossos resultados mostram que a ativação dos receptores CB1 pode prevenir os MMVs induzidos por haloperidol em ratos, sugerindo a participação da sinalização canabinóide via receptor CB1 na discinesia orofacial.