The nineteenth century was an era that great centralization and codification attempts were realized in the Ottoman Empire. One of these attempts was the Ottoman Land Code of 1858, which put various land regulations throughout the empire into a standard code. But this standard Code gave different results when applied to different regions which had their own characteristic features. Eastern Anatolia, which had an autonomous position since its incorporation to the Ottoman Empire, was also in the scope of the Land Code. The object of this study is to examine the implementation of the Land Code of 1858 in eastern Anatolia and the impacts of this implementation process in the region. Indeed, the general situation of the region greatly disaffected the implementation of the Code in eastern Anatolia. Because of the dominant disorder within the region and problems of the state in these lands, the Land Code could not be properly implemented in eastern Anatolia. The Land Code and the title deeds, which were distributed in accordance with the Code, were so important that they became the base of later ownership claims. Therefore, the implementation of the Code had deep and long lasting effects on the land patterns and social relations in the region. In this respect, this study will evaluate the implementation process of the Land Code throughout eastern Anatolia and the socio-economic transformation of the region as a result of this process.

Adiyaman region is situated within SE Anatolian Fold and Thrust Belt which is a part of Alpine-Himalayan Mountain Belt system. The Belt is evolved as Eurasian plate and Arabian plate amalgamates in SE Anatolia. There are two main contractional deformational periods, Late Cretaceous and Late Miocene, which are followed by a strike slip deformation, during post-Late Miocene characterizing the tectonics of SE Anatolia. Series of folds and thrusts have a trend of almost ENE-WSW direction. The analysis on bedding planes and folds shows around N70E trend. On the other hand, two overthrusts that are closely linked to the folds and a sinistral strike-slip fault with reverse component are differentiated. The overthrust belt with ENE-WSW trend bounds the study area from north with a vergence from north to south and situated on top of folded upper Miocene sequences. Another overthrust and a cross-cutting strike slip fault with reverse component &ndash / Adiyaman Fault- form a &ldquo / pop-up&rdquo / structure (positive flower structure) which is characteristic for in a transpressional regimes manifested in geological cross-sections done from borehole correlations and seismic sections. To conclude, by combining the surface (field data) and subsurface data (seismic and borehole data), the Alidag anticlinal structure that is formed along the Adiyaman Fault are developed after the Late Miocene under transpressional regime.

This study is a conclusion of radiocarbon datings which are depend on evaluations of archaeologists or scholars who publishes these datings. So it is very attached to observations of those scholars especially for determining sub-phases of samples which are dated. According to these datings, the radiocarbon story of Anatolian Early Bronze Age starts with a dating from Troia from 3760 cal. BC and ends with a dating from &Ccedil / adirh&ouml / y&uuml / k in 1630 cal. BC. Of course these dates are the lower and higher borders of the 68% probability band. As a result of assessments of all datings it can be said that the beginning of Early Broze Age in Anatolia is started equally more or less in every region at the same time interval that corresponds 3700/3400 BC and continued 800 years approximately. Although error deviation bands overlap onto each other, it is possible to say that the EB2 period of Anatolia ruled between 2800-2400 BC roughly. In this work it can be observed that the ending of the Early Bronze Age in Anatolia generally not ocured simultaneously. Sos H&ouml / y&uuml / k for example in the East Anatolia for example, drawing a very special profile with an ending date 2300 BC for the Early Bronze Age. Some other sites giving results as late as nearly in 18th. and 17th. century BC. For the timing of the end of Early Bronze Age in Anatolia, it can be said that, inequality among the sites are more likely other than regions.

This study is concerned with volcanostratigraphic and petrologic evolution of the S&uuml / phan, which is a 4050 m high Quaternary stratovolcano in eastern Anatolia. The eruptive products of S&uuml / phan Stratovolcano, including transitional mildly alkaline to calc-alkaline rocks, are lavas, domes and pyroclastics ranging in composition from basalts to rhyolites. Ar-Ar age data from different levels of the volcanostratigrafic succession yield a range of 0.76-0.06 Ma. Textural features, wide temperature ranges obtained for intermediate members, and the linear trends of whole-rock geochemistry are strongly suggestive of magma mixing in the evolution of S&uuml / phan volcanics. Presence of crystal clots in many lavas suggests that cogenetic plutonic rocks were also involved in the mixing process. Comparison of whole-rock, melt inclusion and glass chemistry data of S&uuml / phan to data from experimental studies reported in literature indicate that the melt inclusions describe true liquid lines of descent from a common hydrous parent at pressures of ~500 MPa. EC-AFC modeling of trace element and isotopic compositions reveals 2-8% crustal contamination in the differentiated lavas. REE modeling indicates that primitive rocks of S&uuml / phan volcanics were products of mixing of melts from spinel and garnet lherzolite sources, with contributions of 60% and 40%, respectively, in the mixture. A two-stage petrogenetic model is proposed for Suphan stratovolcano. Mantle- derived melts stall and undergo chemical differentiation in a deep hot zone in lower to mid-crust / variably evolved melts ascending from this zone are arrested and mixed at a shallow level where they construct a sub-volcanic magma reservoir beneath Suphan.

This study aims to revise the genus Salvia L. in East and Southeast Anatolia in Turkey on the basis of macromorphological, anatomical, palynological, mericarp micro-morphological, ecological and numerical analysis. Towards achieving this goal, about 2500 specimens of Salvia were collected and examined during extensive field studies between July 2005 and June 2009. The materials collected by other researchers either from Turkey or abroad were also investigated. The results of the taxonomic revision show that the study area includes 59 taxa, 24 (40.7%) of which are endemic and the remaining 35 (59.3%) are non-endemic. Salvia siiirtica is described as new to science. S. macrosiphon is described as a new record for Turkey and S. cerino-pruinosa and S. pseudeuphratica are re-evaluated as valid species as well as S. ballsiana is rediscovered. Macromorphological characters that were considered to have taxonomically diagnostic value are investigated and their possible variations are discussed. Habit, stem, leaf, inflorescence, bract, calyx, corolla and stamen properties are compared at infrageneric and species level. The first comprehensive evaluation of the systematic value of anatomy, palynology and mericarp micromorphology of Salvia are presented. Some characters, such as row numbers of ray cells in the root, type of the leaf blade structure, shape of cross section of the petiole, shape and number of median vascular bundles, pollen size, size of mericarps and diameter of abscission scars, are useful for infrageneric delimitation. Variation in some anatomical characters, such as number of cell layers of collenchyma and cortex, number of cell layers of palisade parenchyma, size of petiole, number of lateral vascular bundles, exine ornamentation type of pollen, presence of large lumina in the middle of the primary lumen, the muri thickness, mericarp shape, mericarp length/width ratio and surface ornamentation type, can be used for separating species within the sections. Based on the updated geographical and ecological distribution, conservation status of the taxa is reassessed at regional, national and global levels. At the regional scale, the distribution is CR for 6 taxa EN for 9 taxa, VU for 5 taxa, NT for 10 taxa and LC for 29 taxa. At the national scale, the distribution is CR for 5 taxa, EN for 5 taxa, VU for 7 taxa, NT for 10 taxa and LC for 32 taxa. At the global scale, the distribution is CR for 5 taxa, EN for 3 taxa, VU for 6 taxa, NT for 10 taxa NT and LC for 35 taxa. The main threats in the study area are overgrazing, constructions, land clearing, fire, urbanization and tourism. The infrageneric delimitation is performed using multivariate analysis. Identification keys to sections and species are given. Synonymy, updated descriptions, phenology, distribution and habitats in Turkey, general distribution outside Turkey, distribution maps, phytogeography, specimen citations, some notes on taxonomy and photographs showing general appearance of the taxa are also provided.

This thesis focuses on late Early Bronze Age metal objects from funeral context from the site Kalinkaya-Toptastepe, dated to the late 4th and 3rd millennium BCE. The site yielded a large number of metal objects from EBA necropolis of the southern slope of Toptastepe, offering an ideal closed assemblage for an archaeometrical analysis to reveal the metalworking technologies of an early small rural community of Central Anatolia. First archaeometrical analysis applied on these objects, however, revealed unexpectedly high amounts of Zinc, which turned out to be not an intentional alloy, but modern contamination due to the electrochemical cleaning, carried out in the 1970s. A second analysis has carried out after cleaning the metal objects with micro-sandblasting technique, to remove the artificial Zn contamination. The accumulated data provided us with important insights into the metal consumption and alloying traditions of a late EBA village community in Central Anatolia, showing the earliest conscious alloys were being applied in small hamlets of the EBA as well. It has been apparent that any pre-Iron Age metal object, revealing Zn in its chemical composition can not be considered as early brass, but clearly a result of modern, ill-advised cleaning application.

This study investigates the relationship between the ancient settlements in west Anatolia and physical, environmental parameters including topography, rock and morphological classes. Modern settlements are also included in the study to analyze if the response has changed to these parameters from past to the present. The databases created in the study include three topographic attributes (elevation, slope and aspect), rock type, ancient settlements and modern settlements. Analyses performed in the study involve distance and density analyses, morphological analysis / distribution within the rock types both for ancient and modern settlements. The results of the study demonstrated that 1) the active faults produced attractive topography to settle, 2) people preferred the vicinity of the fault line as settlement location, and 3) they were not aware of the earthquake potential of their location. Therefore, because of the advantage of the location they did not consider to change the place as indicated by rebuilding their settlement repeatedly at the same place after it is damaged.

In this revisional study based on the the genus Vicia in Central Anatolia large quantities of data have been compilled from specimens representing the group of the taxa being studied. These data were then synthesized to make taxon descriptions, keys, geographical distributions and ecological preferences. Since 2009, about 700 specimens have been collected from Central Anatolia and examined as the research materials. In addition, a large number of specimens have also been studied in the following herbaria ANK, GAZI, MUG, HUB and E. According to the Flora of Turkey (Davis 1985), there were 16 species found in Central Anatolia. But this study has shown that genus Vicia covers 22 species (V. noeana, V. anatolica, V. pannonica, V. hybrida, V. sericocarpa, V. narbonensis, V. galilaea, V. ervilia, V. caesarea, V. cracca, V. villosa, V. monantha, V. canescens, V. cappadocica, V. articulata, V. cassubica, V.peregrina, V. truncatula, V. grandiflora, V. lathyroides, V. cuspidata, V sativa) in this region. v Some morphological characters were used to understand whether they have a diagnostic value or not. These characters, which include habit, leaf, stem, inflorescence, calyx, corolla and style properties, were compared at infrageneric level and species level. Systematic value of pollen micromorphology, trichome micromorphology and petal epidermal micromorphology of Vicia in Central Anatolia were observed. Pollen grains equatorial view, polar view and exine ornamentations, trichome types of calyces and leaves can be useful for separating the species in sectional level. Geographical and ecological distributions maps were updated. In addition to this, the conservation status of the genus Vicia in Cental Anatolia was reassessed at regional level. The threat categories include 2 taxa DD, 1 taxon CR, 7 taxa EN, 1 taxon VU, 1 taxon NT and 14 taxa LC. The main threat categories for this genus are identified as overgrazing, constructions, land clearing and urbanizations. The infrageneric delimitations were performed by the use of multivariate analysis. Identification keys for sections and species were also given. Synonym, species updated descriptions, phenology, habitat, distribution in Central Anatolia, distribution in Turkey and general distribution, phytogeograpy, endemism, specimen citations photographs of species and distribution maps were also indicated.

Xenophon of Athens probably did not write his Anabasis until thirty years or more after the events which it describes. This remarkable gap, taken together with the absence of a prologue, the presence of a number of prominent themes and authorial concerns, and the complex literary construction of the work, has made the task of explaining it problematic. Situating the text in the context of Xenophon's later life and wide-ranging literary output, in this dissertation I argue that apologia is the defining element in the work. Through his elaborate narrative structure and representation of his own character, Xenophon is defending himself, his social class, and his teacher, Socrates. In Books 5 and 7 (of 7) he is occupied with a rigorous defence of his conduct on the retreat, answering charges of deceiving the soldiers, hubris, corruption, and mercenary service, while in Books 3 through to 7, he is defending the memory of Socrates. For from the point of his introduction into the text at the opening of Book 3, following the decapitation of the Greek High Command at the Greater Zab River, Xenophon the character is acting as a pupil of Socrates would have done had he found himself in similarly dire circumstances. His actions, counsel, and moral bearing during the course of the retreat are a testimony to the value of his teacher's training, and powerfully undermine the charges of impiety and corrupting the youth levelled against Socrates in 399. At the same time, the outstanding leadership performance on the retreat of Xenophon's character reflects on himself as the historical figure behind the exemplar. By highlighting its different forms and bringing out its pervasiveness, the dissertation demonstrates that apologia is the major factor in the formation of the text.

This thesis undertakes a complete reinvestigation of the archaeology of a large Early Bronze Age cemetery at İkiztepe in northern Turkey, by utilizing oxygen and strontium isotope analysis of human remains in combination with spatial and biodistance analysis and various dating techniques to identify potential immigrants to the site and to examine larger issues of residential mobility and social organization. The occupation of the Northern Anatolian site of İkiztepe is traditionally assigned to the Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Ages. However, the site’s chronological framework has been challenged in recent years. These chronological issues have been addressed by applying fluoride and AMS radiocarbon dating to the skeletal remains from the İkiztepe cemetery, to develop an absolute and relative chronology for the burials. These results have shown that the cemetery dates at least a millennium earlier than previously supposed. Oxygen and strontium isotope analyses allowed the identification of individuals whose bone chemistry suggests that they were possible long distance immigrants to the site of İkiztepe, as well as suggesting the existence of a group of mobile individuals who may represent a transhumant segment of the İkiztepe population. Spatial and biodistance analyses suggest that principles of cemetery organization in this period were highly complex. Immigrant individuals and nomadic or semi-nomadic segments of the population do not appear to have been distinguished in any observable way from their sedentary local counterparts, displaying similar burial types, grave goods and spatial locations. Furthermore, burial within the İkiztepe cemetery does not appear to have been kin structured. These results suggest that assumptions about funerary practices as important indicators of cultural identity and lineage affiliation may represent an over-simplification of complex patterns of interaction and integration among and within populations and cultural groups.