Anti-icing agents are applied to road surfaces to prevent ice formation and to melt any hail or snow as it falls. The specific agent is selected to provide optimum anti-icing properties for the particular local climate in different municipalities taking into account cost, availability and properties. These anti-icing agents are generally applied in liquid form, and due to their low freezing temperatures, are able to remain liquid at the low ambient temperatures. Unfortunately, the negative aspect of the use of liquid agents is that they are able to penetrate concrete structures to a greater extent than can the solid de-icers, such as rock salt. Once the chloride solutions penetrate the concrete, they can have serious deleterious effects on both the reinforcing steel as well as the concrete [1]. It has been shown in previous studies that the cations of the solutions will tend to react with the cementitious materials to form precipitates of expansive nature. More specifically, the reaction of CaCl2 with Ca(OH)2 results in the formation of expansive calcium hydroxy-chloride [2]. The reaction of MgCl2 with Ca(OH)2 forms Mg(OH)2 in the capillary pores with CaCl2 as a by-product after which the MgCl2 can react with the calcium-silicate-hydrate to form magnesium-silicate-hydrate – a gel-like material with no inherent binding properties or strength. The calcium hydroxy-chloride and Mg(OH)2 precipitates can have a positive effect at early onset, but will eventually cause deterioration of concrete due to the internal forces applied by the precipitates as their volume increases. This can affect the strength and create notable interior strain in the concrete. There are a number of mechanical properties that can be analyzed using short-term testing that will help to determine any changes occurring due to salt solution exposure. To gain a general understanding of the effects of the salt solution exposure in this project, compressive strength, tensile strength, elastic modulus, and strain were measured using a number of exposure conditions. While the results of testing confirm that there are initial benefits beyond minimizing ice formation and bonding, there ultimately exist a number of concerns with respect to the reactions that occur between the salts and hardened cement paste. Although the formation of calcium hydroxy-chloride is known to be expansive [3], evidence of this compound was only seen indirectly through elevated strain and micro-cracking. There was no deterioration of compressive strength, tensile strength, or elastic modulus over the short-term testing. Similarly, and again due to the short testing period, the formation of magnesium-silicate-hydrate (M-S-H) is unlikely to have occurred, though its formation during long-term exposure can result in complete loss of binding strength [2]. However, the precipitation of Mg(OH)2 is believed to be responsible for the lower chloride diffusion rate as well as the increase in strength of the concrete exposed to MgCl2. The only agent which did not yield changes of concern with respect to concrete is the NaCl solution while CaCl2 produced the most deleterious effects.

Anti-icing agents are applied to road surfaces to prevent ice formation and to melt any hail or snow as it falls. The specific agent is selected to provide optimum anti-icing properties for the particular local climate in different municipalities taking into account cost, availability and properties. These anti-icing agents are generally applied in liquid form, and due to their low freezing temperatures, are able to remain liquid at the low ambient temperatures. Unfortunately, the negative aspect of the use of liquid agents is that they are able to penetrate concrete structures to a greater extent than can the solid de-icers, such as rock salt. Once the chloride solutions penetrate the concrete, they can have serious deleterious effects on both the reinforcing steel as well as the concrete [1]. It has been shown in previous studies that the cations of the solutions will tend to react with the cementitious materials to form precipitates of expansive nature. More specifically, the reaction of CaCl2 with Ca(OH)2 results in the formation of expansive calcium hydroxy-chloride [2]. The reaction of MgCl2 with Ca(OH)2 forms Mg(OH)2 in the capillary pores with CaCl2 as a by-product after which the MgCl2 can react with the calcium-silicate-hydrate to form magnesium-silicate-hydrate – a gel-like material with no inherent binding properties or strength. The calcium hydroxy-chloride and Mg(OH)2 precipitates can have a positive effect at early onset, but will eventually cause deterioration of concrete due to the internal forces applied by the precipitates as their volume increases. This can affect the strength and create notable interior strain in the concrete. There are a number of mechanical properties that can be analyzed using short-term testing that will help to determine any changes occurring due to salt solution exposure. To gain a general understanding of the effects of the salt solution exposure in this project, compressive strength, tensile strength, elastic modulus, and strain were measured using a number of exposure conditions. While the results of testing confirm that there are initial benefits beyond minimizing ice formation and bonding, there ultimately exist a number of concerns with respect to the reactions that occur between the salts and hardened cement paste. Although the formation of calcium hydroxy-chloride is known to be expansive [3], evidence of this compound was only seen indirectly through elevated strain and micro-cracking. There was no deterioration of compressive strength, tensile strength, or elastic modulus over the short-term testing. Similarly, and again due to the short testing period, the formation of magnesium-silicate-hydrate (M-S-H) is unlikely to have occurred, though its formation during long-term exposure can result in complete loss of binding strength [2]. However, the precipitation of Mg(OH)2 is believed to be responsible for the lower chloride diffusion rate as well as the increase in strength of the concrete exposed to MgCl2. The only agent which did not yield changes of concern with respect to concrete is the NaCl solution while CaCl2 produced the most deleterious effects.

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abstract: Durable, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly anti-icing methods are desired to reduce the icing hazard in many different industrial areas including transportation systems, power plants, power transmission, as well as offshore oil and gas production. In contrast to traditional passive anti-icing surfaces, this thesis work introduces an anti-icing coating that responds to different icing conditions by releasing an antifreeze liquid. It consists of an outer porous superhydrophobic epidermis and a wick-like underlying dermis that is infused with the antifreeze liquid. This bi-layer coating prevents accumulation of frost, freezing fog, and freezing rain, while conventional anti-icing surfaces typically work only in one of these conditions. The bi-layer coating also delays condensation on the exterior surface at least ten times longer than identical system without antifreeze. It is demonstrated that the significant delay in condensation onset is due to the integral humidity sink effect posed by the hygroscopic antifreeze liquid infused in the porous structure. This effect significantly alters the water vapor concentration field at the coating surface, which delays nucleation of drops and ice. It was demonstrated that with a proper design of the environmental chamber the size of the region of inhibited condensation and condensation frosting around an isolated pore, as well as periodically spaced pores, filled by propylene glycol can be quantitatively predicted from quasi-steady state water vapor concentration field. Theoretical analysis and experiments revealed that the inhibition of nucleation is governed by only two non-dimensional geometrical parameters: the pore size relative to the unit cell size and the ratio of the unit cell size to the thickness of the boundary layer. It is demonstrated that by switching the size of the pores from millimeters to nanometers, a dramatic depression of the nucleation onset temperature, as well as significantly greater delay in nucleation onset can be achieved. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Mechanical Engineering 2017

Matter on earth exists mostly in three different phases of solid, liquid, and gas. With extreme amounts of energy, temperature, or pressure, a matter can be changed between the phases. Six different types of phase-change phenomena are possible: freezing (the substance changes from a liquid to a solid), melting (solid to liquid), condensation (gas to liquid), vaporization (liquid to gas), sublimation (solid to gas), and desublimation (gas to solid). Another form of phase change which will be discussed here is the wetting or dewetting transitions of a superhydrophobic surface, in which the phase residing within the surface structure switches between vapor and liquid. Phase transition phenomena frequently occur in our daily life; examples include: a ``liquid'' to ``solid'' transition when cars decrease their distance at a traffic light, solidification of liquids droplets during winter months, and the dancing of droplets on a non-sticking pan. In this dissertation we will address seven different phase-change problems occurring in nature. We unveil completely new forms of phase-change phenomena that exhibit rich physical behavior. For example, during traffic flow, drivers keep a large distance from the vehicle in front of them to ensure safe driving. When vehicles come to a stop, for example at a red light, drivers voluntarily induce a ``phase transition'' from this ``liquid phase'' to a close-packed ``solid phase''. This phase transition is motivated by the intuition that traveling as far as possible before stopping will minimize the overall travel time. However, we are going to investigate this phase-change process and show that this long standing intuition is wrong. Phase-change of solidification will be discussed for different problems. Moreover, the complex physics of oil as it wicks up sheets of frost and freezing of bubble unveil completely new forms of multiphase flows that exhibit rich physical behavior. Finally, the ``Cassie'' to ``Wenzel'' transition will be investigated for layered nano-textured surfaces. These phenomena will be modeled using thermodynamics and fluid mechanics equations. / Doctor of Philosophy / The main focus of this dissertation is on the dynamical phase change phenomena occurring in nature. First, we study the solid to liquid phase change of group of people moving from rest. We show that increasing the packing density of vehicles at a stop-and-go motion (e.g., vehicles at a traffic light) would not increase the efficiency of the flow once it is resumed. Second, we present a passive anti-frosting surfaces just by using the chemistry of ice. We show how the in-plane frost growth can be passively suppressed by patterning arrays of microscopic ice stripes across a surface. Third, we elucidate how bubbles deposited on a chilled and icy substrate freeze in different ambient conditions. We reveal the various phenomena that govern how soap bubbles freeze and produce a variety of beautiful effects. Fourth, we will study oil-ice interactions which are important for the emerging science of using oil-impregnated surfaces for anti-icing and anti-frosting applications, where oil drainage from the surface due to wicking onto ice is a pressing issue. We observe oil as it wicks up sheets of frost grown on aluminum surfaces of varying wettability: superhydrophilic, hydrophilic, hydrophobic, and superhydrophobic. Fifth, we study the effect of topography of the nanopillars on dynamics of jumping droplets. The critical diameter for jumping to occur was observed to be highly dependent on the height and diameter of the nanopillars, with droplets as small as 2 µm jumping on the surface with the tallest and most slender pillars. Sixth, we show that micrometric condensate spontaneously launches several millimeters from a wheat leaf’s surface, taking adhered pathogenic spores with it. We quantify spore liberation rates of order 10 cm⁻² hr⁻¹ during a dew cycle. Finally, inspired by duck feathers, two-tier porous superhydrophobic surfaces were fabricated to serve as synthetic mimics with a controlled surface structure. We show the effect of layers of feathers on energy barrier for the wetting transition.

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Preventing ice accumulation on aircraft surfaces is important to maintain safe operation during flight. Ice accumulation on aero-engine nose cones is detrimental as large pieces may break off and be ingested into the engine damaging the compressor blades. Currently, hot bleed air is taken from the compressor and blown over the inside and outside surfaces of the nose cone to prevent ice formation on the surface. Although effective, this technique reduces the efficiency of the aero-engine. This investigation evaluates the performance of a novel anti-icing system that uses a rotating heat pipe to transfer heat from the engine to the nose cone. Rotating heat pipes are effective two-phase heat transfer devices capable of transporting large amounts of heat over small temperature differences and cross-sectional areas. In this system, waste heat that is generated in the engine would be transferred to the rotating heat pipe at an evaporator and then transferred into the critical areas of the nose cone at a condenser preventing ice accumulation on the outside surface. In this investigation, the heat is transferred into the heat pipe from a fluid heated by the engine that would pass through a small annular gap between the rotating heat pipe and a stationary wall. The heat transfer for this configuration and the effect of passive heat transfer augmentation on the outside of the rotating heat pipe in the jacket was investigated experimentally for a range of Taylor numbers of 10^6 < Ta < 5x10^7 and for axial Reynolds numbers of 900 < Re_x < 2100, characteristic of this configuration when engine lubricant was used as the working fluid. It was found that by using an array of three-dimensional cubical protrusions, the heat transfer in the evaporator could be increased by 35% to 100%. This result was better than that found using two-dimensional rib roughness. It was also found that the evaporator performance was a limiting factor in the heat transfer performance of the system under most conditions, so further optimization of the evaporator is important. In the proposed condenser design, the condenser section of the rotating heat pipe would be encased in a lightweight, high conductivity polycrystalline graphite or similar composite material and the end of the heat pipe would be in direct contact with the nose cone. It was found that the end-wall of the heat pipe was not a source of high heat transfer, however it provided an effective means for heating the tip of the nose cone. The effect of using heating channels on the inside of the nose cone was also considered. Here, the condensate from the rotating heat pipe was driven through small radially spaced channels on the inside surface of the nose cone. The heating channels were found to be ineffective due to the small contact area that could be made with the nose cone. This was a result of the limited condensate flow that occurs in rotating heat pipes. The heat transfer through the proposed system was 700W to 1100W using water and 400W to 800W using ethanol in the heat pipe. It was found that 50% to 75% of the arclength of the nose cone could be maintained above 0°C using water in the heat pipe at an ambient temperature of -30°C and an airplane speed of 300 km/h. This arclength decreased to approximately 25% when ethanol was used as the working fluid. An increase in airplane speed reduced this arclength maintained above 0°C significantly. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

The most ubiquitous mode of frost formation on substrates is condensation frosting, where dew drops condense on a supercooled surface and subsequently freeze, and has been known since the time of Aristotle. The physics of frost incipience at a microscopic scale has, nevertheless, eluded researchers because of an unjustified ansatz regarding the primary mechanism of condensation frosting. It was widely assumed that during condensation frosting each supercooled droplet in the condensate population freezes in isolation by heterogeneous nucleation at the solid-liquid interface, quite analogous to the mechanism of icing. This assumption has very recently been invalidated with strong experimental evidence which shows that only a single droplet has to freeze by heterogeneous nucleation (typically by edge effects) in order to initiate condensation frosting in a supercooled condensate population. Once a droplet has frozen, it subsequently grows an ice bridge towards its nearest neighboring liquid droplet, freezing it in the process. Thus ensues a chain reaction of ice bridging where the newly frozen droplets grow ice bridges toward their nearest neighbor liquid droplets forming a percolating network of interconnected frozen droplets. Not always are these ice bridges successful in connecting to their adjacent liquid droplets. Sometimes the liquid droplet can completely evaporate before the ice bridges can connect, thus forming a local dry region in the vicinity of the ice bridge. In this work, we first formulate a thermodynamic framework in order to understand the localized vapor pressure gradients that emerge in mixed-mode phase-change systems and govern condensation and frost phenomena. Following this, we study droplet pair interactions between a frozen droplet and a liquid droplet to understand the physics behind the local ice bridge connections. We discuss the emergent scaling laws in ice bridging dynamics, their relative size dependencies, and growth rates. Thereafter, we show how with spatial control of interdroplet distances in a supercooled condensate and temporal control of the first freezing event, we can tune global frost propagation on a substrate and even cause a global failure of all ice bridges to create a dry zone. Subsequently, we perform a systematic study of dry zones and derive a scaling law for dry zones that collapses all of our experimental data spanning a wide parameter space. We then show that almost always the underlying mechanism behind the formation of dry zones around any hygroscopic droplet is inhibition of growth and not inhibition of nucleation. We end with a discussion and preliminary results of our proposed anti-frosting surface that uses ice itself to prevent frost. / Master of Science

Ice accretion on various surfaces can cause destructive effect of our lives, from cars, aircrafts, to infrastructure, power line, cooling and transportation systems. There are plenty of methods to overcome the icing problems including electrical, thermal and mechanical process to remove already accumulated ice on the surfaces and to reduce the risk of further operation. But all these process required substantial amount of energy and high cost of operation. To save the global energy and to improvement the safety issue in many infrastructure and transportation systems we have to introduce some passive anti-icing coating known as ice-phobic coating to reduce the ice-formation and ice adhesion onto the surface. Ice-phobic coatings mostly devoted to utilizing lotus-leaf-inspired superhydrophobic coatings. These surfaces show promising behavior due to the low contact area between the impacting water droplets and the surface. In this present study we investigate systematically the influence of chemical composition and functionality as well as structure of surfaces on wetting properties and later on icing behavior of surfaces. Robust anti-icing coating has been prepared by using modified silica particles as a particles film. Polymer brushes were synthesized on flat, particle surfaces by using Surface initiated ATRP. We have also investigated the effect of anti-icing behavior on the surfaces by varying surface chemistry and textures by using different sizes of particles. This approach is based on the reducing ice accumulation on the surfaces by reducing contact angle hysteresis. This is achieved by introducing nano to micro structured rough surfaces with varying surface chemistry on different substrates. Freezing and melting dynamics of water has been investigated on different surfaces by water vapour condensation in a high humidity (80%) condition ranging from super hydrophilic to super hydrophobic surfaces below the freezing point of water. Kinetics of frost formation and ice adhesion strength measurements were also performed for all samples. All these experiments were carried out in a custom humidity and temperature controlled chamber. We prepared a superhydrophobic surface by using Poly dimethyl siloxane (PDMS) modified fumed silica which display very low ice-adhesion strength almost 10 times lower than the unmodified surface. Also it has self-cleaning behavior after melting of ice since whole ice layer was folded out from the surface to remove the ice during melting. Systematic investigation of the effect of three parameters as surface energy, surface textures (structure, geometry and roughness) and mechanical properties of polymers (soft and stiff) on icing behavior has also been reported.