Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most common motor neurodegenerative diseases, affecting 1-2% of the world's population over the age of 65. It is characterised by a loss of dopamine neurons within the substantia nigra, which is an integral part of the basal ganglia (BG) where dopamine is the most important modulating neurotransmitter. As the BG is primarily involved with the execution of movement, the lack of dopamine input results in dysfunctional motor control. The current PD treatment, L-DOPA, improves these motor symptoms, however only provides patients 5 to 10 years of improved quality of life before debilitating side effects, often worse than the original symptoms, begin. The neuropeptide substance P (SP) is found in high concentration in the substantia nigra, and BG in general, where it is involved in dopamine release. In the late stages of PD, SP content within the substantia nigra and BG is decreased, thus implicating SP in the pathophysiology of PD. However, SP production has not been examined in the early stages of PD when dopaminergic degeneration is first initiated. This thesis therefore sought to characterise the role of SP in dopaminergic degeneration in an experimental model of early PD, the 6-hydroxydopamine model in rats. In contrast to the prevailing dogma that a decline in SP is associated with neurodegeneration in PD, this thesis demonstrates that SP is actually increased within the striatum in early PD, particular in perivascular tissue and within surviving dopaminergic neurons during the degenerative process. Increasing exposure of the dopaminergic neurons to SP, either by inhibition of substance P breakdown with Captopril or by direct injection with SP, exacerbated the disease progression as indicated by more profound neurogenic inflammation, functional deficits and increased dopaminergic cell death. However, when SP was inhibited by treatment with a SP NK₁ receptor antagonist, dopaminergic neurons were conserved, the inflammatory response was reduced and motor function was returned to near normal levels. We conclude that SP is increased in early PD, and that increased SP plays an important role in the degenerative process, specifically, in the genesis of BBB breakdown and initiation of neurogenic inflammation. Treatment with an NK1 antagonist may thus represent a novel therapeutic approach to early stage Parkinson’s disease. / Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Medical Sciences, 2009

Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most common motor neurodegenerative diseases, affecting 1-2% of the world's population over the age of 65. It is characterised by a loss of dopamine neurons within the substantia nigra, which is an integral part of the basal ganglia (BG) where dopamine is the most important modulating neurotransmitter. As the BG is primarily involved with the execution of movement, the lack of dopamine input results in dysfunctional motor control. The current PD treatment, L-DOPA, improves these motor symptoms, however only provides patients 5 to 10 years of improved quality of life before debilitating side effects, often worse than the original symptoms, begin. The neuropeptide substance P (SP) is found in high concentration in the substantia nigra, and BG in general, where it is involved in dopamine release. In the late stages of PD, SP content within the substantia nigra and BG is decreased, thus implicating SP in the pathophysiology of PD. However, SP production has not been examined in the early stages of PD when dopaminergic degeneration is first initiated. This thesis therefore sought to characterise the role of SP in dopaminergic degeneration in an experimental model of early PD, the 6-hydroxydopamine model in rats. In contrast to the prevailing dogma that a decline in SP is associated with neurodegeneration in PD, this thesis demonstrates that SP is actually increased within the striatum in early PD, particular in perivascular tissue and within surviving dopaminergic neurons during the degenerative process. Increasing exposure of the dopaminergic neurons to SP, either by inhibition of substance P breakdown with Captopril or by direct injection with SP, exacerbated the disease progression as indicated by more profound neurogenic inflammation, functional deficits and increased dopaminergic cell death. However, when SP was inhibited by treatment with a SP NK₁ receptor antagonist, dopaminergic neurons were conserved, the inflammatory response was reduced and motor function was returned to near normal levels. We conclude that SP is increased in early PD, and that increased SP plays an important role in the degenerative process, specifically, in the genesis of BBB breakdown and initiation of neurogenic inflammation. Treatment with an NK1 antagonist may thus represent a novel therapeutic approach to early stage Parkinson’s disease. / Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Medical Sciences, 2009

Submitted by Marcos Anselmo (marcos.anselmo@unipampa.edu.br) on 2018-09-24T15:01:09Z No. of bitstreams: 1 CAMILA COELHO RODRIGUES.pdf: 1765480 bytes, checksum: b3f50f8973734acade5a9396b1aafebf (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Marcos Anselmo (marcos.anselmo@unipampa.edu.br) on 2018-09-24T15:03:24Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 CAMILA COELHO RODRIGUES.pdf: 1765480 bytes, checksum: b3f50f8973734acade5a9396b1aafebf (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-09-24T15:03:24Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 CAMILA COELHO RODRIGUES.pdf: 1765480 bytes, checksum: b3f50f8973734acade5a9396b1aafebf (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-07-13 / A apocinina apresenta estrutura pequena e possui diversas atividades biológicas, sua estrutura pode ser oxidada em certas condições e resultar na formação do seu dímero, a diapocinina. Como um potencial agente terapêutico, análogos estruturais da diapocinina, contendo grupos substituintes ligados a esta molécula, podem apresentar atividade neuroprotetora e aceptora de radicais. As chalconas apresentam estrutura química 1,3-diaril-2-propen-1-ona simples que permite variadas modificações estruturais com a finalidade de otimizar o perfil farmacológico ou direcioná-las para diferentes atividades biológicas. A resposta de maior destaque é a capacidade aceptora de radicais e atividade neuroprotetora. Neste trabalho foram realizadas a síntese e caracterização da diapocinina e seus derivados, a avaliação das propriedades físico-químicas e da atividade aceptora de radicais, estudos de modelagem e docking molecular, toxicidade in silico e in vivo, com a finalidade de se obter compostos que possam ser empregados como candidatos a novos fármacos aceptores de radicais e antiparkinsonianos. A diapocinina foi sintetizada a partir da apocinina e caracterizada por CLAE, espectroscopia IV, e RMN 1H e 13C. As chalconas derivadas da diapocinina com substituintes 4-Cl, 4-N(CH3)2, 4-OCH3 e 4-NO2, foram sintetizadas através da condensação de Claisen-Schmidt. A análise de capacidade aceptora de radicais foi realizada através do ensaio de DPPH utilizando como padrão BHT. A análise de toxidade in silico, especificamente o risco de causar genotoxidade, mutagenicidade, efeitos irritante e sobre sistema reprodutor, foi realizado através dos programas computacionais Osiris Property Explorer e admetSAR. Os estudos de docking molecular foram realizados utilizando o software iGemdock 2.1 e envolveu a avaliação de ligação individual da apocinina e diapocinina. Os protocolos experimentais pré-clínicos in vivo de avaliação de atividade frente a sintomas de doença de Parkinson foi realizado com Drosophila melanogaster. A apocinina demonstrou capacidade de captura de DPPH maior que seu dímero, sugerindo-se que este composto se apresenta como melhor candidato para o desenvolvimento de compostos com atividade antioxidante potencial. A partir da análise da toxicidade in silico observou-se que somente os compostos 4-N(CH3)2 e 4-NO2 apresentaram riscos de causar os efeitos mutagênicos e genotóxicos, sendo que os demais compostos apresentaram risco teórico baixo. Os resultados obtidos no estudo de docking molecular permitiram a obtenção de modelos teóricos onde a apocinina e a diapocinina não possuem ligação no mesmo sitio de interação. Assim sugere-se que estruturas químicas possam, de maneira simultânea, atuar no mesmo alvo, mas em sítios adjacentes de interação. A avaliação da atividade frente a sintomas da doença de Parkinson realizada através de ensaio de sobrevivência, toxicidade e comportamento com Drosophila melanogaster constata que tanto a apocinina e diapocinina são compostos promissores para o estudo e o desenvolvimento de agentes para se utilizar na terapêutica, com atividade neuroprotetora. / Apocynin is phenolic compound with a small structure which exhibit diverse pharmacological activities. Aromatic ring structure can be oxidized under enzymatic or in oxidizing medium generating its dimer, diapocinin. Structural analogues of diapocinin are considering a potential therapeutic agent, and depending on substituent moieties attached to this molecule. Chalcones have a simple chemical 1,3-diaryl-2-propen-1-one structure which allows structural modifications aiming the optimization of the broad recognized pharmacological profile or to reach some different biological activities. Oxygen radical acceptor (antioxidant) and neuroprotective are highlighted biological activities observed to these class of compounds and they were studied in this research. In this work, the synthesis and characterization of diapocinin and its chalcone derivatives, the evaluation of physicochemical properties and radical acceptor activity, molecular modeling and docking studies, in silico and in vivo toxicity, and evaluation of Parkinson’s disease in Drosophila melanogaster protocols were performed in order to support the new antioxidant and antiparkinsonian drugs. Diapocinin was synthesized from apocynin and characterized by HPLC, IR spectroscopy, and 1H and 13C NMR. Chalcones derived from diapocinin, with 4-Cl, 4-N(CH3)2, 4-OCH3 and 4-NO2, were synthesized by the condensation of Claisen-Schmidt. Radical acceptor evaluation was performed usign DPPH assay using BHT as standard. In silico toxicity analysis, specifically the risk of causing genotoxicity, mutagenicity, irritant effects and activity on the reproductive system, were performed using Osiris Property Explorer and admetSAR. Molecular docking studies were performed using iGemdock 2.1 software, and this study involved the evaluation of individual binding of apocynin and diapocinin and alfa-synuclein and NADPH oxidase. In vivo preclinical experimental protocols of activity against Parkinson's disease symptoms were performed with Drosophila melanogaster. Apocynin demonstrated higher DPPH radical capture than diapocynin, suggesting that this compound is the best candidate for the development of compounds with potential antioxidant activity. From the analysis of in silico toxicity, it was observed the 4-N(CH3)2 and 4-NO2 compounds presented risks of causing the mutagenic and genotoxic effects, and the other compounds presented low theoretical risk. The results obtained in the molecular docking study allowed the generation of theoretical models which the apocynin and diapocinin not show binding or interactions in the same molecular protein site. Thus, it is suggested that chemical structures may, simultaneously, act on the same target, but in adjacent sites of interaction. The evaluation of activity against Parkinson's disease symptoms performed by survival, toxicity and behavior assays with Drosophila melanogaster suggest the both apocynin and diapocinin are promising compounds for the study and development of agents to be used in therapy, with neuroprotective activity.