Asymmetric phase-transfer catalysis is a powerful technique that enables a wide range of transformations under mild conditions, often using inexpensive and environmentally benign reagents. By extending the applications of phase-transfer catalysis we have developed a highly diastereo- and enantioselective synthesis of functionalized indolines bearing two contiguous stereocentres, one of which is quaternary and all carbon, in a single synthetic step. The reaction proceeds with complete diastereoselectivity and with high levels of enantioselectivity (up to 99% ee). Despite the development of phase-transfer catalysis as a primary synthetic tool in organic synthesis, the mechanistic understanding of these reactions still remains a challenge, due mainly to the difficulty of studying the complex multi-phase systems. Therefore, a further aim of this project was to understand the reaction mechanism of our phase-transfer catalysed transformation. Investigations into the mechanism of our phase-transfer catalysed reaction have been carried out by studying the reaction kinetics. These have shown that the reaction follows a sigmoidal curve with an induction period present. A detailed kinetic investigation was carried out which demonstrated that an autocatalytic mechanism is operational.

Achiral wide bite angle ligands have been shown to be highly active and to induce excellent chemo- and regioselectivities in many homogeneously catalyzed reactions. However, only a few examples of chiral wide bite angle ligands are known so far. A diphenyl ether backbone was selected to allow maximum synthetic versatility and potential for a modular approach to design and synthesize such chiral diphosphorus ligands. Three synthetic strategies have been explored in this thesis: i) introduction of chiral substituents in the ligand backbone, ii) the use of P-stereogenic donor atoms and iii) the synthesis of chiral mixed-donor ligands bearing chiral auxiliary groups on the phosphorus atoms. Functionalization of the 3,3'-positions of 2,2'-bis(diphenylphosphino)diphenyl ether by carboxylic acid or ether auxiliaries was achieved via straightforward four-step routes to generate a library of ligands that were tested in various catalytic reactions. In the Pd-catalyzed asymmetric allylic alkylation of l,3-diphenyl-2-propenyl acetate and cyclohexyl-2-enyl acetate with dimethyl malonate the enantioselectivity was found to depend on the size of the chiral auxiliary introduced within the diphenyl ether backbone and its proximity to the phosphorus donor groups and hence to the active metal centre. Two types of mixed donor bidentate diphosphorus ligands based on the diphenylether backbone have been established, i.e. phosphine-phosphite and phosphine-phosphonite derivatives. A small ligand library bearing different chiral auxiliaries was accomplished via straightforward syntheses that enable derivatization of the respective phosphite and phosphonite moieties in the final step. In the Rh-catalysed hydrogenation of several benchmark substrates high conversion and moderate to high enantioselectivities (up to 97% for dimethyl itaconate) were obtained. The enantioselectivity was influenced by the size of the ortho-substituent on the chiral auxiliary group of the phosphite or phosphonite fragment. Two modular synthetic approaches for the preparation of novel wide bite angle diphosphine ligands containing stereogenic P-atoms have been developed. Both protocols involved diphenylether as backbone and the chiral ephedrine based precursor (2R[subscript(P)],4S[subscript(C)],5R[subscript(C)])-oxazaphospholidine borane as initial auxiliary to induce chirality at phosphorus. Various novel diphosphines were isolated as highly enantioenriched compounds with dr-ratios up to 95:5.

Palladium-catalyzed reactions for carbon-carbon bond formation have had a significant impact on the field of organic chemistry in recent decades. Illustrative is the 2010 Nobel Prize, awarded for “palladium-catalyzed cross couplings in organic synthesis”, and the numerous applications of these transformations in industrial settings. This thesis describes recent developments in C(sp2)-C(sp3) bond formation, focusing on alkane arylation reactions and arylative dearomatization transformations. In the first part, our contributions to the development of intramolecular C(sp3)-H arylation reactions from aryl chlorides are described (Chapter 2). The use of catalytic quantities of pivalic acid was found to be crucial to observe the desired reactivity. The reactions are highly chemoselective for arylation at primary aliphatic C-H bonds. Theoretical calculations revealed that C-H bond cleavage is facilitated by the formation of an agostic interaction between the palladium centre and a geminal C-H bond. In the following section, the development of an alkane arylation reaction adjacent to amides and sulfonamides is presented (Chapter 3). The mechanism of C(sp3)-H bond cleavage in alkane arylation reactions is also addressed through an in-depth experimental and theoretical mechanistic study. The isolation and characterization of an intermediate in the catalytic cycle, the evaluation of the roles of both carbonate and pivalate bases in reaction mechanism as well as kinetic studies are reported. Our serendipitous discovery of an arylation reaction at cyclopropane methylene C-H bonds is discussed in Chapter 4. Reaction conditions for the conversion of cyclopropylanilines to quinolines/tetrahydroquinolines via one-pot palladium(0)-catalyzed C(sp3)-H arylation with subsequent oxidation/reduction are described. Initial studies are also presented, which suggest that this transformation is mechanistically unique from other Pd catalyzed cyclopropane ring-opening reactions. Preliminary investigations towards the development of an asymmetric alkane arylation reaction are highlighted in Chapter 5. Both chiral carboxylic acid additives and phosphine ligands have been examined in this context. While high yields and enantiomeric excesses were never observed, encouraging results have been obtained and are supported by recent reports from other research groups. Finally, in part two, the use of Pd(0)-catalysis for the intramolecular arylative dearomatization of phenols is presented (Chapter 7). These reactions generate spirocyclohexadienones bearing all-carbon quaternary centres in good to excellent yields. The nature of the base, although not well understood, appears to be crucial for this transformation. Preliminary results in the development of an enantioselective variant of this transformation demonstrate the influence of catalyst activation on levels of enantiomeric excess.

<p>Allylic amines are important and fundamental building blocks due to their wide-spread occurrence in many natural products and the ability to further functionalize them by transformations on the double bond to generate a diverse range of compounds. Transition-metal catalyzed allylic substitution represents an attractive and efficient approach towards the synthesis of these allylic amines. However, limitations associated with the traditional methods developed for such allylic amination in terms of regiospecificity, atom economy and generality in these transformations, combined with the importance of allylic amination, prompted us to develop novel atom efficient and regiospecific methods for their synthesis.</p><p>A 1:1 mixture of AuCl[P(<italic>t</italic>-Bu)₂<italic>o</italic>-biphenyl] (5 mol %) and AgSbF₆ (5 mol %) catalyzed the intermolecular amination of underivatized allylic alcohols with 1-methyl-2-imidazolidinone and related nucleophiles. The first examples of intermolecular allylic amination was developed that in the case of gamma-unsubstituted and gamma-methyl-substituted allylic alcohols, occurred with high gamma-regioselectivity and <italic>syn</italic>-stereoselectivity.</p><p>A 1:1 mixture of AuCl[P(<italic>t</italic>-Bu)₂<italic>o</italic>-biphenyl] (5 mol %) and AgSbF₆ (5 mol %) also served as a very efficient catalytic system for the intramolecular amination of allylic alcohols with alkylamines to form substituted pyrrolidine and piperidine derivatives. The protocol was effective for a range of secondary as well as primary alkylamines as nucleophiles with different substitutions on the alkyl chain tethering the nucleophile to the allylic alcohol. The method was also extended towards the total synthesis of the naturally occurring alkaloid (S)-(+)-coniine in two steps from the starting (R,Z)-8-(N-benzylamino)-3-octen-2-ol. In addition, gold(I)-catalyzed cyclization of (R,Z)-8-(N-benzylamino)-3-octen-2-ol (96% ee) led to isolation of (R,E)-1-benzyl-2-(1-propenyl)piperidine in 99% yield and 96% ee that established the net syn-addition of the nucleophile with respect to the departing hydroxyl group.</p><p> A bis(gold) phosphine complex (S)-Au₂Cl₂(DTBM-MeOBIPHEP) (2.5 mol %) and AgClO₄ (5 mol %) catalyzed the intramolecular enantioselective dehydrative amination of allylic alcohols with carbamates to form the corresponding substituted pyrrolidines, piperidines, morpholines and piperazines in excellent yields and with up to 95% ee. This general and effective protocol tolerated a range of carbamates as well as sulfonamides as nucleophiles. Cyclization of chiral amino allylic alcohols that possessed a stereogenic homoallylic or hydroxy-bound carbon atom occurred with an overriding catalyst control of asymmetric induction. In addition, stereochemical analysis of the cyclization of a chiral non-racemic secondary allylic alcohol established the net syn-displacement of the hydroxy group by the carbamate nucleophile.</p><p>Alongside allylic amination, a cationic gold(I)-N-heteocyclic carbene complex catalyzed the intermolecular etherification (alkoxylation) of allylic alcohols in a regiospecific and syn-stereoselective fashion. The transformation was highly efficient to utilize unactivated primary and secondary alcohols as nucleophiles with different allylic alcohols to undergo regiospecific etherification. Employment of a chiral nonracemic secondary allylic alcohol, trans-5-(benzyloxy)pent-3-en-2-ol (98% ee) showed a high level of chirality transfer on reaction with n-butanol to the corresponding allylic ether, (2-butoxypent-3-en-1-yloxy)methylbenzene (97% ee) and established the net syn-addition of the alcohol nucleophile with respect to the departing hydroxyl group of the allylic alcohol.</p> / Dissertation

The work presented in this thesis mainly describes the discovery and development of methodology for the synthesis of anthecularin and anthecotulides, a family of unusual sesquiterpene lactones. Firstly, two 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition approaches toward anthecularin have been evaluated, using either oxidopyrylium ylide chemistry (Path A) or carbonyl ylides, generated by rhodium-catalysed decomposition of diazo ketones (Path B). Synthesis of the key precursor for the diazo strategy was achieved but unfortunately no desired cycloadduct was isolated. Secondly, an experimentally straightforward method to stereoselectively synthesise β-hydroxymethyl-α-methylene-γ-butyrolactones was developed using chromium or zinc. The synthetic utility of this methodology was demonstrated in syntheses of (±)-methylenolactocin, (±)-hydroxymatairesinol and, ultimately, (±)-hydroxyanthecotulide using a gold-catalysed Meyer-Schuster rearrangement. Finally, the first asymmetric synthesis of (+)-anthecotulide has been achieved, in 6 steps from commercially available materials. During this synthesis the absolute configuration was established. Furthermore, a novel rhodium-catalysed enantioselective ene-yne cycloisomerisation was used to form the α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone core.

This dissertation describes work towards two marine alkaloid natural products of the manzamine family. The total synthesis of (–)-nakadomarin A, via two conceptually different strategies is described along with the development of a novel nitro-Mannich-Mannich cascade reaction, which has been applied in a synthesis of the diazatricyclic core of the madangamines. A short and highly stereoselective synthesis of (–)-nakadomarin A has been developed. A sequential alkyne ring-closing metathesis/syn selective reduction strategy enabled the stereoselective construction of the Z-configured alkene in the fifteen-membered macrocycle of the molecule. ‘Matched’ catalyst and substrate control facilitated a highly diastereoselective nitro olefin Michael addition to fix two of the four stereocentres in one key step. Furthermore, a nitro-Mannich/lactamization cascade, furan N-acyl iminium ion cyclisation and alkene ring-closing metathesis enabled the total synthesis of the natural product in 19 steps. In collaboration with Prof. Amir Hoveyda and Prof. Richard Schrock, an alternative approach to a highly Z-selective macrocyclic ring closure in the synthesis of (–)-nakadomarin A has been developed. Three diene substrates were prepared and the Z-selectivity of alkene ring-closing metathesis investigated using a range of molybdenum MAP (monoaryloxide pyrrolide) catalysts. Initial studies using these catalysts produced promising results (Z:E = ~1.2:1), relative to commercially available ruthenium metathesis catalysts (Z:E = 2:3). Using a recently developed chiral tungsten MAP complex, alkene ring-closing metathesis was found to proceed in excellent yield (90%) with exceptional Z:E-selectivity (Z:E ~1.2:1) and requiring only low catalyst loadings (5 mol%). A novel nitro-Mannich-Mannich cyclisation cascade has been developed allowing access to highly functionalized piperidines. Application of this unprecedented mode of reactivity using a substrate derived from a Michael-addition of methylcyanoacetate to a functionalized cyclic nitro olefin allowed the preparation of a cis-fused 6,6’-bicycle in excellent yield. Further elaboration of this 6,6’-bicycle enabled the synthesis of the diazatricyclic core of the madangamine alkaloids to be achieved.

Bifunctional iminophosphoranes, containing a triaryl-substituted iminophosphorane and bis(3,5- trifluoromethyl)phenyl thiourea on a single enantiomer scaffold are novel asymmetric superbase organocatalysts reported by the Dixon group in 2014. This thesis describes our efforts to expand their scope and utility in a variety of challenging chemical transformations. Chapter 2 describes the development and application of immobilised bifunctional iminophosphorane organocatalysts. We have successfully immobilised bifunctional iminophosphoranes on a crosslinked polystyrene support and applied this sold-supported catalyst to three challenging asymmetric reactions; namely the nitro-Mannich reaction of phosphinoyl ketimines and the conjugate addition of alkylmalonates and N,N-dimethyl &beta;-keto amides to nitrostyrene. Very good yields, enantio- and diasteroselectivities were obtained in all cases. We have also demonstrated their use in a range of conjugate additions of cyclic 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds to nitroalkenes, which suffered from very slow reaction rates under tertiary amine-based bifunctional catalysis. In all cases, the immobilised bifunctional iminophosphoranes performed very well in comparison to their homogeneous counterparts. We have also demonstrated catalyst recycling over 10 cycles and application in a continuous flow system with a productivity of 7.20 mmol _producth^-1g_catalyst^-1. to the ring-opening polymerisation (ROP) of cyclic esters. We have demonstrated the performance of bifunctional iminophosphorane organocatalysts in the ROP of L-lactide (LA), δ-valerolactone (VL) and ε-caprolactone (CL). The polymerisation of LA and VL proceeded rapidly and was well controlled, while only short lengths (> 100 DP) of poly(CL) could be prepared in a controlled fashion due to hypothesised competing initiation from the catalyst. We have shown that the polymerisation of LA using our catalyst may be considered a living polymerisation. Di-block co-polymers could also be successfully prepared via sequential monomer addition or through the use of macroinitiators. We then investigated the roles of the iminophosphorane and the thiourea component of the catalyst.

Catalysis plays a key role in chemical conversions by making them faster and more selective. Despite its widespread use and decades of academic and industrial research, limited catalyst selectivity and stability still call for major improvements in catalyst performance to meet the demands of a sustainable society. Phosphine ligands are ubiquitous in transition metal chemistry and lead to extremely reactive and versatile homogeneous catalysts. Fast development of tailor-made catalysts and catalyst recovery are key issues in (asymmetric) homogeneous catalysis. Therefore libraries of ligands have to be synthesised and screened in an efficient way, which could be facilitated by Solid Phase Synthesis (SPS). Currently, most polymer bound ligands are anchored to the support after the synthesis in solution. However, the main advantages of synthesising the ligands directly on the polymeric support are not only easy catalyst recycling and product separation, but also the ease of purification during the synthesis steps, namely by simple washing and filtration. The use of SPS is very efficient for high throughput synthesis and screening of ligand libraries, however applications of SPS towards libraries of phosphorus ligands are rare, because the synthetic methodologies are still lacking. Here we present the development of methodologies towards novel immobilised bis(phosphine) ligands synthesised on polystyrene and JandaJel™ resin. By performing the synthesis steps on a solid support, the advantages of SPS are fully utilised. Successful routes have been developed towards immobilised secondary phosphine-boranes, which were versatile synthons to prepare a variety of new polymer-supported (C-chiral) bis(phosphine) ligands. These ligands were then tested for their catalytic activity in rhodium catalysed hydrogenation reactions.

As reações aldólicas vêm ganhando destaque com os recentes avanços na área de biocatálise. Uma alternativa para o uso de aldolases, que não atuam sobre uma grande variedade de substratos e possuem custos elevados, é o emprego de enzimas de outras classes que possam exercer como função promíscua a atividade aldolase. Neste trabalho lipases e celulases foram capazes de catalisar a reação aldólica entre o 4-nitrobenzaldeído e a cicloexanona. A lipase de Rhizopus niveus (RNL) catalisou a reação aldólica em solventes orgânicos na presença de água e também em tampões aquosos. As reações condicionais influenciaram o rendimento (0-99%) e a enantiosseletividade do produto aldólico anti (6-55% eeanti). O produto aldólico com enantiosseletividade foi observado mesmo com a enzima inativa e em condições desnaturantes. Portanto, as reações aldólicas procederam por catálise proteica inespecífica com enantiosseletividades moderadas e não por atividade promíscua. Contudo, este estudo identificou um novo catalisador verde para reações aldólicas, pois foram obtidos produtos com bons rendimentos, ee e excesso diastereoisomérico (ed), demonstrando novas possibilidades para lipases, especialmente para a RNL que é pouco estudada na literatura. A partir destes resultados obtidos, uma nova abordagem baseada em sistemas reacionais de miniemulsão foi elaborada. Superando limitações para este sistema fluido não convencional como o emprego de reagente sólido (4-nitrobenzaldeído), substratos relativamente polares, solução tampão e o desenvolvimento de um procedimento de isolamento do produto. Desta maneira, foram descritos neste trabalho métodos de produção de sistemas reacionais de miniemulsão estáveis e aplicáveis, como relatado para reações aldólicas pela RNL. Empregando planejamento experimental minimizou-se a quantidade de catalisador (de 20 para 6 mg mL-1) em comparação com as reações realizadas em mistura de solvente orgânico e água. Mesmo com menor quantidade de enzima, o rendimento aumentou de 25% para valores de até 65% para 48 h de reação e o eeanti de 10% foi maximizado para valores acima de 30%, valor não considerado satisfatório, entretanto bem superior ao observado inicialmente. Com a interpretação estatística dos dados obtidos foi possível apresentar compreensões satisfatórias para as variações observadas de ee, ed, rendimento e tamanho médio de diâmetro das gotículas de miniemulsão, possibilitando uma compreensão mais completa deste sistema e permitindo uma melhor racionalização deste meio reacional que ainda não foi amplamente estudado e divulgado na literatura para promover reações biocatalíticas. Este estudo demonstrou a potencialidade deste método para diferentes tipos de reações orgânicas. / The aldol reactions have received attention with the recent advances in biocatalysis. In this sense, studies showed that an alternative for the use of aldolases, which do not act on a great variety of substrates and have high costs, is the use of enzymes of other classes that can present the promiscuous aldolase activity. In this work lipases and cellulases were able to catalyze the aldol reaction between 4-nitrobenzaldehyde and cyclohexanone. Rhizopus niveus lipase (RNL) catalyzed the aldol reaction in organic solvents with water or aqueous buffers. The reactional conditions affected the yield (0-99%) and the enantioselectivity of the anti-aldol product (6-55% eeanti). The aldol product with enantioselectivity was observed even with the inactive enzyme and under denaturing conditions. Therefore, the aldol reaction proceeded by non-specific protein catalysis with moderate enantioselectivity and not by promiscuous activity. However, this study identified a new green catalyst for aldol reactions, since products with good yields, ee and diastereoisomeric excess (ed) were obtained, and new possibilities for lipases, especially for RNL that is understudied. From these results, a new approach based on the miniemulsion reactional system was developed. Overcoming limitations to this unconventional fluid system such as the use of a solid reagent (4-nitrobenzaldehyde), relatively polar substrates, buffer solutions and the development of a product isolation method. In this way, we have described in this work methods for the production of stable and applicable miniemulsion reaction systems for aldol reactions by RNL. Using experimental design, the amount of catalyst (from 20 to 6 mg mL -1) was minimized in comparison with the reactions performed in organic solvent and water. Even with a lower amount of enzyme, the yield increased from 25% to 65% for 48 hours of reaction and the eeanti of 10% was maximized to values above 30%, a value not considered satisfactory, however higher than the enantioselectivity initially observed. The statistics applied to the obtained data presented satisfactory interpretations for the observed ee, ed, yield and average diameter size of the miniemulsion droplets, allowing a more complete understanding of the miniemulsion system and allowing a better rationalization of this reactional medium that is understudied to promote biocatalytic reactions. This study demonstrated the potential of this methodology for different types of organic reactions.

As reações aldólicas vêm ganhando destaque com os recentes avanços na área de biocatálise. Uma alternativa para o uso de aldolases, que não atuam sobre uma grande variedade de substratos e possuem custos elevados, é o emprego de enzimas de outras classes que possam exercer como função promíscua a atividade aldolase. Neste trabalho lipases e celulases foram capazes de catalisar a reação aldólica entre o 4-nitrobenzaldeído e a cicloexanona. A lipase de Rhizopus niveus (RNL) catalisou a reação aldólica em solventes orgânicos na presença de água e também em tampões aquosos. As reações condicionais influenciaram o rendimento (0-99%) e a enantiosseletividade do produto aldólico anti (6-55% eeanti). O produto aldólico com enantiosseletividade foi observado mesmo com a enzima inativa e em condições desnaturantes. Portanto, as reações aldólicas procederam por catálise proteica inespecífica com enantiosseletividades moderadas e não por atividade promíscua. Contudo, este estudo identificou um novo catalisador verde para reações aldólicas, pois foram obtidos produtos com bons rendimentos, ee e excesso diastereoisomérico (ed), demonstrando novas possibilidades para lipases, especialmente para a RNL que é pouco estudada na literatura. A partir destes resultados obtidos, uma nova abordagem baseada em sistemas reacionais de miniemulsão foi elaborada. Superando limitações para este sistema fluido não convencional como o emprego de reagente sólido (4-nitrobenzaldeído), substratos relativamente polares, solução tampão e o desenvolvimento de um procedimento de isolamento do produto. Desta maneira, foram descritos neste trabalho métodos de produção de sistemas reacionais de miniemulsão estáveis e aplicáveis, como relatado para reações aldólicas pela RNL. Empregando planejamento experimental minimizou-se a quantidade de catalisador (de 20 para 6 mg mL-1) em comparação com as reações realizadas em mistura de solvente orgânico e água. Mesmo com menor quantidade de enzima, o rendimento aumentou de 25% para valores de até 65% para 48 h de reação e o eeanti de 10% foi maximizado para valores acima de 30%, valor não considerado satisfatório, entretanto bem superior ao observado inicialmente. Com a interpretação estatística dos dados obtidos foi possível apresentar compreensões satisfatórias para as variações observadas de ee, ed, rendimento e tamanho médio de diâmetro das gotículas de miniemulsão, possibilitando uma compreensão mais completa deste sistema e permitindo uma melhor racionalização deste meio reacional que ainda não foi amplamente estudado e divulgado na literatura para promover reações biocatalíticas. Este estudo demonstrou a potencialidade deste método para diferentes tipos de reações orgânicas. / The aldol reactions have received attention with the recent advances in biocatalysis. In this sense, studies showed that an alternative for the use of aldolases, which do not act on a great variety of substrates and have high costs, is the use of enzymes of other classes that can present the promiscuous aldolase activity. In this work lipases and cellulases were able to catalyze the aldol reaction between 4-nitrobenzaldehyde and cyclohexanone. Rhizopus niveus lipase (RNL) catalyzed the aldol reaction in organic solvents with water or aqueous buffers. The reactional conditions affected the yield (0-99%) and the enantioselectivity of the anti-aldol product (6-55% eeanti). The aldol product with enantioselectivity was observed even with the inactive enzyme and under denaturing conditions. Therefore, the aldol reaction proceeded by non-specific protein catalysis with moderate enantioselectivity and not by promiscuous activity. However, this study identified a new green catalyst for aldol reactions, since products with good yields, ee and diastereoisomeric excess (ed) were obtained, and new possibilities for lipases, especially for RNL that is understudied. From these results, a new approach based on the miniemulsion reactional system was developed. Overcoming limitations to this unconventional fluid system such as the use of a solid reagent (4-nitrobenzaldehyde), relatively polar substrates, buffer solutions and the development of a product isolation method. In this way, we have described in this work methods for the production of stable and applicable miniemulsion reaction systems for aldol reactions by RNL. Using experimental design, the amount of catalyst (from 20 to 6 mg mL -1) was minimized in comparison with the reactions performed in organic solvent and water. Even with a lower amount of enzyme, the yield increased from 25% to 65% for 48 hours of reaction and the eeanti of 10% was maximized to values above 30%, a value not considered satisfactory, however higher than the enantioselectivity initially observed. The statistics applied to the obtained data presented satisfactory interpretations for the observed ee, ed, yield and average diameter size of the miniemulsion droplets, allowing a more complete understanding of the miniemulsion system and allowing a better rationalization of this reactional medium that is understudied to promote biocatalytic reactions. This study demonstrated the potential of this methodology for different types of organic reactions.