This dissertation outlines the study and development of a Solid-state Impact-ionization Multiplier (SIM). The SIM is a stand-alone current amplifier designed with optical detection systems in mind. The SIM amplifies signals utilizing impact ionization as a source of gain. The SIM is fabricated on silicon in order to take advantage of its favorable impact ionization coefficients. Utilizing silicon in impact ionization based gain devices makes low noise and high gains attainable. Because it is a stand-alone device, it can be wired to an arbitrary current source making it capable of receiving an input from photodiodes of any material. This makes it possible to amplify a signal from a photodiode that has been optimized for a given wavelength. In this way, the SIM attempts to separate the absorption and multiplication portions in modern day optical detection/amplification devices such as in Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs). This flexibility allows it to be utilized in many different systems. The SIM has gone through several iterations in the last few years. Each change has been with the purpose of increasing gain, frequency response or yield. The progression of the device has come at the hand of much thought, theory, simulation, fabrication, and testing. One of the challenges encountered in its development has been gain controllability due to poor carrier confinement and premature breakdown. Increased gain control was developed through simulation and fabrication of a confining oxide layer. Yield and difficulties in consistent fabrication were also addressed by altering the input metallization and doping processes. The frequency response of the device has been the largest challenge in device development. Issues such as space charge, floating node voltage, edge effects and low signal amplification have caused limitations. Successes and attempts at overcoming these, and other, challenges is the basis of this dissertation of work.

The microplasma discharges in the PN junction local defect micro-regions are as a rule, accompanied by the emission of light. This radiation from solar cell PN junctions was measured by means of a optical fibre connected to the optical input of a photomultiplier. By inching the fibre by means of computercontrolled X-Y plotter above the cell surface a 2-D image of the irradiation local regions has been created. It is seen that a cell of a superficial area of 100 square cm contains a large number of defects, which depends on applied reverse voltage. This method can be a convenient tool for study and diagnostics of optoelectronic devices.

Abstract Although avalanche switching has been known since the 1950s, a trustworthy one-dimensional physical interpretation of the practically interesting high-current mode ("secondary breakdown") in a Si avalanche transistor has appeared only within the last decade and thanks to numerical one-dimensional and two-dimensional physics-based device modelling. A good fit with experimental waveforms has been achieved only for high-current, long-duration pulses (~100 A/7 ns), however, and modelling fails in the case of shorter pulses in a range that is of greater practical importance. One significant finding in this thesis is that reliable modelling of a Si avalanche transistor is in general impossible without taking account of three-dimensional effects. The task is a challenging one, as it is being put forward for the first time and state-of-the-art simulators are unable to model three-dimensional avalanche dynamics with an external circuit included (i.e. in “MixedMode”). Thus a smart approach was adopted which allowed the main features of the three-dimensional transient to be explained using a two-dimensional simulator and compared with the experimental data. The focus was on a trade-off of between high switching efficiency in an avalanche transistor (high-speed switching with a lower residual voltage as occurs at extremely high current densities) and device reliability as determined by local overheating during a single pulse, similarly resulting from high current density. This denotes the practical importance of the work performed here, as the current density is directly affected by three-dimensional dynamic processes. The second task performed in this thesis concerns the reliability of the GaAs avalanche transistors developed recently in the Electronics Laboratory and demonstrated of unique (superfast) switching and high-power-density sub-THz emission for mm-wave imaging and radars. Critically important for this new device is the limitation originating from premature breakdown at the surface of the GaAs p-n junction with a high density of surface states. Two of the results of this work are also fairly challenging: (i) the mechanism of "soft" surface breakdown intrinsic to all GaAs transistor mesas was interpreted in terms of the surface trapping of avalanche-generated electrons as suggested here, and (ii) passivation of the surface with a chalcogenide glass was suggested, as this allows the premature surface breakdown to be suppressed completely, an effect that has proved to be caused by a large negative surface charge formed on the “U centres” intrinsic to a chalcogenide glass. / Tiivistelmä Vaikka avalanche läpilyönti pii-transistoreissa on tunnettu jo 1950-luvulta lähtien, luotettava 1-dimensionaalinen fysikaalinen tulkinta ilmiöstä käytännön sovellusten kannalta kiinnostavilla suurilla virtatasoilla (ns. “secondary breakdown”) on esitetty vasta viime vuosikymmenen aikana 1- ja 2-dimensionaalisiin numeerisiin simulointeihin ja fysikaaliseen mallinnukseen perustuen. Kokeellisten mittausten ja simulointien välille on saatu hyvä sovitus kuitenkin vain sellaisessa ohjaustilanteessa, jossa transistori toimii suurella virtatasolla ja tuottaa leveitä virtapulsseja (~100  A / 7 ns); mallinnus ei vastaa mittaustuloksia lyhyillä virtapulsseilla, jotka kuitenkin ovat tärkeitä käytännön sovellusten kannalta. Yksi tämän työn keskeisiä havaintoja on se, että piipohjaisen avalanche transistorin luotettava mallintaminen ei ole käytännössä yleisesti mahdollista ottamatta huomioon 3-dimensionaalisia (3D) efektejä. Tällainen mallinnus, jota tässä työssä on kehitetty ensimmäistä kertaa, on vaikeaa, koska kaupalliset simulointiohjelmistot eivät kykene käsittelemään avalanche ilmiön dynamiikka 3-dimensionaalisesti tilanteessa, jossa transistoriin on kytketty ulkoinen piiri (ns. mixed-mode -simulointitilanne). Tähän kehitettiin tekniikka, joka mahdollistaa 3-dimensionaalisen kytkentätransientin tärkeimpien piirteiden selittämisen ja mittaustuloksiin vertaamisen 2-dimensionaalisten simulointien perusteella. Erityisesti pyrittiin selvittämään avalanche transistorin korkean kytkentähyötysuhteen (kollektori-emitterin ns. residual-jännitteen käyttäytyminen virrantiheystason mukaan) ja komponentin luotettavuuden välistä riippuvuutta. Luotettavuuteen vaikuttaa olennaisesti komponentin sisäinen, lokalisoitunut lämpötilamaksimi, joka myös riippuu keskeisesti komponentin virrantiheystasosta kytkentäpulssin aikana. Toisaalta virrantiheyteen vaikuttavat juuri komponentin 3-dimensionaaliset dynaamiset prosessit, joten työn käytännöllinen merkitys on suuri. Työn toisen osa käsittelee elektroniikan laboratoriossa äskettäin kehitetyn GaAs-avalanche transistorin luotettavuutta. Tällaisella transistorilla on demonstroitu olevan erityislaatuinen supernopea kytkeytymisefekti, ja se emittoi korkealla tehotasolla sähkömagneettista säteilyä n. 0,1–1 THz taajuusalueella. GaAs-avalanche transistoria voidaan täten potentiaalisesti hyödyntää mm-alueen kuvantamisessa ja tutkissa. Tämän uuden transistorin luotettavuuteen vaikuttaa ratkaisevasti rajoitus, joka aiheutuu ennenaikaisen, GaAs-pn-liitoksen pinnassa vaikuttavasta suuresta pintatilatiheydestä johtuvan läpilyönnin mahdollisuudesta. Työn kaksi keskeistä tulosta ovat: (i) kaikilla GaAs-transistoreilla ilmenevä ns. ”pehmeä”-läpilyönti aiheutuu avalanche ilmiön synnyttämien elektronien loukkuuntumisesta pinta-tiloihin, ja (ii) pinnan passivointi kalkopyriittilasilla estää läpilyönnin kokonaan, koska kalkopyriittilasille luonteenomaiset ”U-tilat” aiheuttavat liitoksen pintaan korkean negatiivisen pintavarauksen.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第22447号 / 工博第4708号 / 新制||工||1735(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院工学研究科電子工学専攻 / (主査)教授 木本 恒暢, 教授 山田 啓文, 准教授 船戸 充 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DFAM