Background: Pregnancy has been described as a period when women experience heightened behavioural surveillance. Young single women have commonly been described as a population who engage in high risk behaviours during pregnancy (e.g. smoking), yet they are also a population who often has access to fewer resources to make expected behaviour changes during pregnancy. Purpose: To explore the experiences of young single pregnant and parenting women regarding behavioural expectations and behaviour change during pregnancy. Research Questions: (1) What are the perceived behavioural expectations for young single women during pregnancy? (2) Who or what reinforces the perceived behavioural expectations? (3) To which behavioural expectations do young single women conform (or resist) and why? Methods: Nine single pregnant or parenting women between the ages of 15 and 24 were recruited from two urban community health settings between November 2011 and January 2012. Data was collected through individual semi-structured photo-elicitation interviews and analyzed using qualitative content analysis. Results: The main findings of the study include: (1) young single pregnant women are subject to a multitude of health and social behavioural expectations, (2) young single women experience internal and external behavioural surveillance during pregnancy, and (3) young single pregnant women experience these behavioural expectations as a tension between the potential for opportunity and oppression. Implications for Practice: By understanding young single pregnant women’s perceptions of how they are expected to behave, who and what reinforces such expectations, and how young women conform to or resist such expectations, the results of this project will inform the development of effective individual, community, and systemic level interventions and better inform interactions with young pregnant women.

The goal of this thesis was to reposition individual preparedness within a social environmental context. First, a theoretical model was developed to more accurately represent the social environmental considerations neglected in current preparedness research and policy. A series of three studies tested this model using a mixed-methods approach: First, subjective conceptualizations of preparedness were explored in a qualitative analysis (N = 12). Findings revealed that participants evaluated their readiness not in terms of prescribed activities, but perceptions about their current resourcefulness as well as past local hazards. Participants’ had positive social environments which also reinforced their perceived coping ability in future emergency events. Subsequent thesis studies investigated the role social environment further, using quantitative data. The second study explicitly tested whether perceptions of risk and coping could explain differences in preparedness based on demographic attributes linked to variations in social environment. Data from a survey examining Canadians perceptions regarding terrorism threats (N = 1503) revealed that greater anticipated response was significantly associated with increased age, as well as female gender, higher education levels, and higher income levels. Statistically significant differences in threat appraisals were also reported based on these demographic groupings. However, mediation analyses demonstrated that with the exception of gender, differences in anticipated response could not be explained via risk perceptions or perceived coping efficacy, suggesting that social environment’s role in preparedness is not related to the internal processes often targeted in current campaigns. The third study used a multilevel design to investigate the contextual role of neighbourhood social environment in anticipated emergency response. Results demonstrated that a more deprived social neighbourhood context was related to lowered anticipated emergency response. This relationship was maintained after controlling for significant individual-level factors such as previous experience and sociodemographics, highlighting the importance of neighbourhood social context in facilitating emergency preparedness. Taken together, these findings provide novel evidence that focusing preparedness strategies to primarily target internal processes is misguided, and that future research and policy must position preparedness efforts in the context of existing social environmental resources and barriers in order to build capacity for effective emergency response.

A concept known as the therapeutic alliance has been shown to be a robust predictor of counselling outcome. However, the specific counsellor behaviours that relate to the alliance have not been clearly identified, and few prior attempts to identify these variables have been based on client-derived conceptualizations of the alliance. 51 adult clients participated in a cross-sectional study of the relationship between 15 client-identified counsellor behaviours and the strength of the therapeutic alliance. Results indicated that 11 of the 15 behaviours were moderately to strongly correlated with the strength of the alliance, and that two behaviours (i.e., making positive comments about the client and greeting the client with a smile) significantly predicted the strength of the alliance. The findings support the hypothesis that client-identified behaviours are related to and predict alliance; however, some discrepancy remains between the present results and prior research. Implications are discussed and future research is suggested.

This study utilized longitudinal correlational and regression analyses to examine children’s internalizing behaviour problems, while focusing on the predictive function of peer victimization, the quality of the teacher-child relationship and child gender in early school years. Given the relationship between peer victimization and internalizing problems, the teacher-child relationship and gender was hypothesized to influence the strength and/or direction of this relationship. Participants included children in pre-kindergarten (n = 258) to grade one (n = 272) from twelve schools in an Australian city. Parent reports were used to assess child internalizing problems and peer victimization, and teachers reported on the teacher-child relationship and peer victimization. A significant main effect was found for child gender and kindergarten teacher-child conflict on internalizing behaviours in grade one, whereas no main effect was found for grade one internalizing behaviours for parent-rated peer victimization and teacher-child warmth. The quality of the teacher-child relationship was not found to moderate the relationship between peer victimization and internalizing problems, while child gender did moderate the influence of teacher-child relationship conflict on internalizing problems a year later. The results of the present study indicated that the relationship between teacher-child conflict and internalizing problems a year later differs for boys and girls. The importance of specific microsystems (i.e., teacher-child relationships) over time on children’s behavioural development is discussed, and implications for future research and teacher-child interventions are presented. / Graduate / 0518 / 0525 / 0530 / zerffm@gmail.com

Introduction: Consuming alcohol mixed with energy drinks (AmED) has become a growing and popular trend among young adults worldwide. Although there have been some mixed findings, generally AmED use is associated with heavy drinking, risky behaviours and more negative outcomes, compared to alcohol use alone. Little research has been done outside of college samples and few researchers have investigated motivations for consuming AmED. Purpose: The purpose of the current research was to expand on previous research by investigating motivations for AmED use and the associations between AmED use and heavy drinking, alcohol use disorders, risky behaviours, and negative outcomes in community samples, while controlling for potentially important third variables, like sensation seeking. Methods: Using multivariate regression analyses the associations between AmED use and other variables were investigated in a randomly selected Canadian sample (n = 13,615) and a Canadian community young adult sample (n = 456). As well, an in-depth qualitative investigation of university students’ (n = 465) reported motivations for AmED and energy drink use was investigated using content analysis. Results: Compared to alcohol only, AmED use was found to be associated with heavy alcohol use, increased risk for alcohol use disorders, and increased risky behaviours and negative consequences (e.g., being a passenger in a vehicle with a drunk driver; drinking and driving; being involved in physical aggression; having harmful effects on relationships, health, employment) in both the Canadian and community samples. More frequent AmED use (e.g., weekly or more) was associated with ever having had a sexually transmitted infection. These relationships remained significant even after controlling for demographic variables and sensation seeking personality in the Canadian community sample. The most commonly reported motivations for AmED use were due to the taste of the beverage, enjoyment of a particular AmED (e.g., Jagerbomb), for increased stimulation (e.g., wakefulness, energy, alertness) while drinking, to facilitate “partying” or staying out late when drinking, to counteract the depressant effects of alcohol, for social purposes, and because of ease of availability (e.g., purchased by others/ given for free). Conclusions: This research has contributed to a better understanding of the relationships between AmED use and personality traits, drinking behaviours, and risk behaviours in two relatively large community samples. It has contributed to a better understanding of the motivations for AmED use and how these motivations may be related to heavy drinking and risky behaviours. Taken together, this research indicates that there may be something about AmED use which puts people at an increased risk of drinking heavily, engaging in risky behaviours, and experiencing harms, compared to alcohol use alone. Along with the accumulating research in this area, the current research could be valuable for directing and planning future research studies which are designed to investigate causative relationships and for formulating effective policies and intervention programs. / Graduate / 0621 / 0573 / kbrache@uvic.ca

The Canadian sport system is challenged by the lack of representation of female leaders and coaches. This is, in spite of statistics showing that female athletes account for almost half of all participants in sport, a number that is still growing (Sport Canada, 1999). Women have acquired equity in many areas of life and are accepted in leadership roles, however in the area of sport, women have yet to gain the full credibility and professional respect equal to their male counterparts. Previous research indicates that women who pursue a career in coaching face many adversities and struggle to attain a level of leadership where they can achieve their highest potential (Acosta & Carpenter, 2002). The purpose of this research is to gain an understanding of the lived experiences of elite female coaches, using Erikson’s (1950) theory of psychosocial development. In this study, the qualitative method of life history was used to learn about the experiences of female coaches, specifically the process of becoming and being elite coaches. Five elite Canadian coaches were interviewed. The major themes that developed through the analysis of the interviews were: (a) Support, (b) Overcoming Obstacles, (c) Personal Qualities and (d) The Bigger Picture. The study noted the importance of various support systems through one’s lifespan and some of the challenges a female athlete and coach must overcome to become a successful athlete, coach and mother. The study shares insight into the five women’s personal qualities that helped them grow into elite coaches. Finally, the participants described the process by which they came to find a leadership style with which they were comfortable, as coaches and as women.

In a sample of 57 two-parent families, the current study investigated: (a) mother-father differences in observed autonomy supportive and control behaviours (i.e., directives and negative, parent-centered control); and (b) mothers and fathers unique and relative contributions to childrens later social-emotional competence. Parents behaviours were assessed during an observed clean-up task with mother-child and father-child dyads when children were 2 to 3-and-a half years of age. Parent ratings of childrens social-emotional competence were obtained one year later, when children were 3 to 5-and-a-half years old. Results revealed that mothers engaged in significantly more autonomy support than fathers when observed interacting with their young children. Furthermore, mothers negative, parent-centered control, and fathers autonomy support uniquely predicted childrens later social-emotional competence. These results suggest that mothers and fathers have differential influences on their young childrens growing competences, and exemplify the importance of including fathers in parenting research and intervention. / Psychological Studies in Education

Background: Pregnancy has been described as a period when women experience heightened behavioural surveillance. Young single women have commonly been described as a population who engage in high risk behaviours during pregnancy (e.g. smoking), yet they are also a population who often has access to fewer resources to make expected behaviour changes during pregnancy. Purpose: To explore the experiences of young single pregnant and parenting women regarding behavioural expectations and behaviour change during pregnancy. Research Questions: (1) What are the perceived behavioural expectations for young single women during pregnancy? (2) Who or what reinforces the perceived behavioural expectations? (3) To which behavioural expectations do young single women conform (or resist) and why? Methods: Nine single pregnant or parenting women between the ages of 15 and 24 were recruited from two urban community health settings between November 2011 and January 2012. Data was collected through individual semi-structured photo-elicitation interviews and analyzed using qualitative content analysis. Results: The main findings of the study include: (1) young single pregnant women are subject to a multitude of health and social behavioural expectations, (2) young single women experience internal and external behavioural surveillance during pregnancy, and (3) young single pregnant women experience these behavioural expectations as a tension between the potential for opportunity and oppression. Implications for Practice: By understanding young single pregnant women’s perceptions of how they are expected to behave, who and what reinforces such expectations, and how young women conform to or resist such expectations, the results of this project will inform the development of effective individual, community, and systemic level interventions and better inform interactions with young pregnant women.

[Abstract]: A stress and coping framework was used to explore psychological factors influencing coping behaviours, mental health, and employment outcomes among the unemployed. Jahoda’s (1982) deprivation theory was also incorporated in the exploration. Jahoda proposed that unemployment not only deprives individuals of the manifest, or financial benefits, of employment, but it also deprives them of five latent, or psychosocial benefits, including collective purpose, social contact, status, time structure, and activity. Two studies were carried out, the first being a cross-sectional paper-based survey of 371 unemployed participants (214 males and 157 females, aged between 16 and 65 years) from South East Queensland. A follow-up survey was then carried out 6 months later on 115 of those same participants (59 males and 56 females, aged between 17 and 64). At Time 2, 58 participants had found jobs and 57 had remained unemployed. The variables measured in Study One included coping resources, cognitive appraisals, coping behaviours, and mental health. The coping resources included the personal resources of self-esteem, job seeking efficacy, positive affect, negative affect, and employment commitment, along with financial resources, measured by net fortnightly income, and social resources, measured by social contact during leisure. Job seeking efficacy was measured by self-promotion efficacy and task-focused efficacy. The former involves interpersonal tasks, such as promoting oneself to others as a job seeker, whilst the latter is more impersonal and involves tasks such as writing a resume. The cognitive appraisal variables included employment expectation, satisfaction with employment status, leisure meaningfulness, economic deprivation, and perceived access to the five latent benefits of employment, outlined by Jahoda. The coping behaviours included leisure activity and job search behaviours, including job applications, job search intensity, and job search methods. Mental health was measured by the GHQ-12 (Goldberg, 1972). The same variables were measured in Study Two, with the exception of the leisure variables. Other variables measured in Study Two included job satisfaction and job quality. Study One found that the most consistent predictors of job search behaviours were geographic region, employment commitment, and self-promotion efficacy, with participants living in the metropolitan area, those with a higher commitment to work, and those with greater efficacy being more actively engaged in job seeking. Leisure activity was significantly correlated with mental health and was predicted by availability of financial resources, positive affect, time structure, leisure meaningfulness, and level of education. That is, more frequent leisure activity was associated with being less financially restricted, higher positive affect, greater time structure, more meaningful leisure, and higher levels of education. Mental health was predicted by self-esteem, positive affect, negative affect, employment commitment, satisfaction with employment status, and financial hardship. Participants with better personal coping resources, greater satisfaction with their employment status, and less financial hardship were less likely to have clinical symptoms. The aforementioned variables accounted for 56% of the variance in mental health, and the logistic regression model correctly classified over 84% of cases as having clinical or non-clinical symptoms. The same model, with the exception of employment commitment, was tested in Study Two for the 57 continuously unemployed participants. It accounted for 62% of the variance in mental health, with similar classification accuracy to that at Time 1. The mental health of the 58 employed participants at Time 2 was predicted by occupation, collective purpose, activity, positive affect, and negative affect. Participants in higher skilled occupations, with higher collective purpose, greater activity, higher positive affect, and lower negative affect were less likely to have clinical symptoms. Those variables accounted for 62% of the variance in mental health and correctly classified 84.5% of cases as being clinical or non-clinical. One of the consistent predictors of job search behaviours at Time 2 was job search training. Participants who had completed a training program some time during the 6 months of the research project were more actively looking for work. Training did not, however, enhance participants’ job seeking efficacy or employment expectations. Study Two demonstrated that self-promotion efficacy, employment expectations, and job search behaviours had deteriorated over the 6 month research period, whilst task-focused efficacy increased. Employment status (i.e., gaining employment or remaining unemployed) was predicted by age, job applications, satisfaction with employment status, self-promotion efficacy, employment commitment, and time structure. Job acquisition was predicted by being younger, having submitted more job applications, being dissatisfied with employment status, having higher self-promotion efficacy, having higher employment commitment, and having less structured time. The logistic regression model including those variables accounted for 28% of the variance in employment status (employed or unemployed). Results of a mixed design analysis of variance in Study Two demonstrated that self-esteem, negative affect, satisfaction with employment status, financial hardship, financial strain, social contact, time structure, and mental health were all positively influenced by gaining employment, but showed either very little change or deteriorated for participants who remained unemployed. This research identified important predictors of coping behaviours, mental health, and job acquisition that can be used as a guide for developing suitable intervention strategies for the unemployed.

A concept known as the therapeutic alliance has been shown to be a robust predictor of counselling outcome. However, the specific counsellor behaviours that relate to the alliance have not been clearly identified, and few prior attempts to identify these variables have been based on client-derived conceptualizations of the alliance. 51 adult clients participated in a cross-sectional study of the relationship between 15 client-identified counsellor behaviours and the strength of the therapeutic alliance. Results indicated that 11 of the 15 behaviours were moderately to strongly correlated with the strength of the alliance, and that two behaviours (i.e., making positive comments about the client and greeting the client with a smile) significantly predicted the strength of the alliance. The findings support the hypothesis that client-identified behaviours are related to and predict alliance; however, some discrepancy remains between the present results and prior research. Implications are discussed and future research is suggested.