M. Tech (Biosciences, Faculty of Applied and Computer Sciences), Vaal University of Technology. / The mass production of algae for commercial purposes has predominately been carried out in open ponds systems. However, open ponds systems have a number of disadvantages such as poor light utilization, requirement for large areas of land and high risks of contamination. On the other hand, photobioreactors have attracted much interest because they allow a better control of the cultivation conditions than open systems. With photobioreactors, higher biomass productivities are obtained and contamination can be easily prevented. Photobioreactors can also be engineered to manipulate the light and dark photosynthetic reactions thus enhancing biomass productivity. The main objective of this study was to construct a novel tubular photobioreactor which had the ability to expose the cultured alga to light and dark phases with the aim of optimizing the algal biomass production. A novel tubular photobioreactor with the ability to manipulate the cultured alga’s light and dark photosynthetic reactions was constructed in this study. The alga Spirulina platensis was chosen as the test organism in this novel tubular photobioreactor due to a number of reasons such as its globally socioeconomic importance, its tolerance of higher pH and temperature values which makes it almost impossible to contaminate. The cultivation process of Spirulina in the photobioreactor was investigated through alternating light and dark cycles in an attempt to increase the photosynthetic efficiency of the culture. The effect of different light intensities on the growth of Spirulina in the novel tubular photobioreactor was investigated and it was found that the best light condition that favored higher biomass formation was at 600 μ mol m-2 s-1. Five different light/ dark ratios were evaluated at a light intensity of 600 μ mol m-2 s-1 during a batch mode of operation of the novel tubular photobioreactor. The light/ dark ratio of 1:0.25 was found to be the best ratio because it gave the highest biomass in the shortest period of time when compared to the other ratios used. These results seem to suggest that longer light cycle relative to dark cycle results in higher biomass production. The ratio of 1:0.25 was then used to operate the novel tubular photobioreactor in a continuous mode. A maximum biomass productivity of 25 g/m2/day was achieved which corresponded to a net photosynthetic efficiency of 5.7 %. This result was found to be higher than what most photobioreactors could achieve but it was 2.8 g/m2/day lower than the highest ever reported productivity in a photobioreactor when Spirulina is cultivated. The 2.8 g/m2/day lower was attributed to the different materials used in the construction of these two photobioreactors. The photobioreactor which achieved 27.8 g/m2/day was made up of a clear glass whereas the novel tubular photobioreactor was made up of a PVC tubing. PVC tubes tend to change from clear to a milky colour after a certain period when it is used at higher temperature and pH values hence blocks a certain amount of light. Therefore the main recommendation in this study is to use a PVC tubing with a longer life span when used at a higher temperature and pH values.

Many protected areas around the world face degradation in the face of poverty, maladapted agricultural practices and population growth in their surroundings. This research uses a multidisciplinary approach to study this complex problem in the context of a montane ecosystem. The study area comprises Ngel Nyaki and Kurmin Danko Forest Reserves on the Mambilla Plateau in Eastern Nigeria and the surrounding landscape, comprising pastoral lands, farmland, villages and homesteads. Ongoing degradation of the Forest Reserves through their illegal use as grazing areas by the local Fulani pastoralists indicates that the exclusionary protection of the forest is not working. It may be that a participatory forestry approach to conservation would be more successful. The research presented in this thesis uses a variety of methods (interviews, remote sensing, geographic information systems (GIS) and ecological monitoring) to evaluate the current situation in the study area with the aim of determining the likelihood of such a participatory approach to conservation being successful. Satellite images from the years 1988, 2000 and 2009 were used to quantify changes in forest cover to measure deforestation and regeneration rates. Interviews were used to understand the Fulani's pastoral management systems, land ownership status, cattle movements and living situation. Data from interviews and observations as well as from satellite imagery were combined in a GIS to approximate stocking rates and property boundaries and to identify the level of livelihood diversification the different Fulani families have undergone. As grass and water availability have been identified as the main environmental factors determining grazing and cattle movements, environmental data was collected to determine changes in the rates of grass productivity and streamflow over the course of one dry season. The study found that the extent of natural forest is decreasing all over the study area, on privately owned properties, commonly owned properties and in the Forest Reserves. Evidence of human impacts such as charred grassland by late burning and cattle tracks were clearly visible throughout the reserves, with the exception of the core forest area, indicating ongoing intensive use and management of the reserve for cattle grazing. The stocking rates in dry and wet seasons have been found likely to exceed carrying capacities, which results in overgrazing and a reduction in vegetation cover. The Fulani in the study area have already undergone a transition from relying purely on livestock and livestock products to relying on a mix of livestock, agriculture and silviculture. This transition shows potential for forest transition according to the 'forest transition theory', which, supported by the right policy incentives could be transformed into landscape scale conservation of endemic flora and fauna. xii Biomass productivity and water availability in wet and dry seasons were found to be highly asymmetric, which seriously restricts the number of suitable cattle management systems. Data indicate that tall riverine vegetation may have effects on stream water availability during the dry season. The findings of this section point to the need of carefully reassessing the current management of tall riverine vegetation on the Mambilla plateau, also in view of the sustainability of the water supply for pastoral livelihoods.

abstract: Photosynthesis converts sunlight to biomass at a global scale. Among the photosynthetic organisms, cyanobacteria provide an excellent model to study how photosynthesis can become a practical platform of large-scale biotechnology. One novel approach involves metabolically engineering the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 to excrete laurate, which is harvested directly. This work begins by defining a working window of light intensity (LI). Wild-type and laurate-excreting Synechocystis required an LI of at least 5 µE/m2-s to sustain themselves, but are photo-inhibited by LI of 346 to 598 µE/m2-s. Fixing electrons into valuable organic products, e.g., biomass and excreted laurate, is critical to success. Wild-type Synechocystis channeled 75% to 84% of its fixed electrons to biomass; laurate-excreting Synechocystis fixed 64 to 69% as biomass and 6.6% to 10% as laurate. This means that 16 to 30% of the electrons were diverted to non-valuable soluble products, and the trend was accentuated with higher LI. How the Ci concentration depended on the pH and the nitrogen source was quantified by the proton condition and experimentally validated. Nitrate increased, ammonium decreased, but ammonium nitrate stabilized alkalinity and Ci. This finding provides a mechanistically sound tool to manage Ci and pH independently. Independent evaluation pH and Ci on the growth kinetics of Synechocystis showed that pH 8.5 supported the fastest maximum specific growth rate (µmax): 2.4/day and 1.7/day, respectively, for the wild type and modified strains with LI of 202 µE/m2-s. Half-maximum-rate concentrations (KCi) were less than 0.1 mM, meaning that Synechocystis should attain its µmax with a modest Ci concentration (≥1.0 mM). Biomass grown with day-night cycles had a night endogenous decay rate of 0.05-1.0/day, with decay being faster with higher LI and the beginning of dark periods. Supplying light at a fraction of daylight reduced dark decay rate and improved overall biomass productivity. This dissertation systematically evaluates and synthesizes fundamental growth factors of cyanobacteria: light, inorganic carbon (Ci), and pH. LI remains the most critical growth condition to promote biomass productivity and desired forms of biomass, while Ci and pH now can be managed to support optimal productivity. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Civil and Environmental Engineering 2015

O desenvolvimento de fontes de energia renováveis tem se tornado cada vez mais necessário e, nesse contexto, os biocombustíveis têm um importante papel. Este trabalho teve como objetivo otimizar a produtividade de biomassa e de lipídios da microalga Nannochloropsis gaditana, em cultivos de baixo-custo visando à produção de biodiesel. Um sistema de cultivo foi concebido com materiais acessíveis e os experimentos testaram o efeito de diferentes exposições das células ao claro-escuro, sob irradiância de 800?E m-2 s-1. Foram testadas três profundidades de cultivo (2, 4 e 8 cm) e duas taxas de aeração (0,25 e 1,00 L min-1 por L de cultivo). A penetração de luz nos cultivos e o rendimento de biomassa seca foram monitorados diariamente. Altos rendimentos de biomassa e lipídios foram alcançados. Os valores máximos foram observados no experimento com 4 cm de profundidade e maior taxa de aeração: 13,83 g m-2 d-1 de produtividade de biomassa e 20,50% de teor lipídico, resultando em uma produtividade lipídica de 2,84 g m-2 d-1. Estes resultados indicam o potencial da utilização de N. gaditana para aplicação em cultivos de larga escala, uma vez que o rendimento lipídico observado foi superior ao da soja, principal matéria-prima vegetal para produção de biodiesel. O sistema de cultivo desenvolvido pode ser inserido em um processo de scaling up em cultivos abertos de grande escala. / The development of renewable energy sources has becoming an increasing necessity and, in this context, biofuels have an important role. This study aimed to optimize the productivity of biomass and lipids of the microalgae Nannochloropsis gaditana in a low-cost system, focusing biofuel production. A culture system was designed with low-cost and accessible materials and the experiments tested the effect of different degrees of exposition of cells to light-dark, under 800?E m-2 s-1 irradiance. Three different culture depths (2, 4 e 8 cm) and two aeration ratios (0.25 e 1.00 L min-1 per L of culture) were tested. Light penetration into the cultures and the dry biomass yield were monitored daily. High yields of biomass and lipids were attained in the experiment with 4 cm depth and the high aeration ratio: 13.83g m-2 d-1 of biomass productivity and 20.50% lipid content, resulting in a lipid productivity of 2.84 g m-2 d-1. These results indicate the potential of N. gaditana for application in large-scale cultivation, since its lipid yield is higher than the soybean, the main feedstock plant for biodiesel production. The culture system developed can be inserted in a process of biomass scaling up for large-scale open microalgae cultures.

O desenvolvimento de fontes de energia renováveis tem se tornado cada vez mais necessário e, nesse contexto, os biocombustíveis têm um importante papel. Este trabalho teve como objetivo otimizar a produtividade de biomassa e de lipídios da microalga Nannochloropsis gaditana, em cultivos de baixo-custo visando à produção de biodiesel. Um sistema de cultivo foi concebido com materiais acessíveis e os experimentos testaram o efeito de diferentes exposições das células ao claro-escuro, sob irradiância de 800?E m-2 s-1. Foram testadas três profundidades de cultivo (2, 4 e 8 cm) e duas taxas de aeração (0,25 e 1,00 L min-1 por L de cultivo). A penetração de luz nos cultivos e o rendimento de biomassa seca foram monitorados diariamente. Altos rendimentos de biomassa e lipídios foram alcançados. Os valores máximos foram observados no experimento com 4 cm de profundidade e maior taxa de aeração: 13,83 g m-2 d-1 de produtividade de biomassa e 20,50% de teor lipídico, resultando em uma produtividade lipídica de 2,84 g m-2 d-1. Estes resultados indicam o potencial da utilização de N. gaditana para aplicação em cultivos de larga escala, uma vez que o rendimento lipídico observado foi superior ao da soja, principal matéria-prima vegetal para produção de biodiesel. O sistema de cultivo desenvolvido pode ser inserido em um processo de scaling up em cultivos abertos de grande escala. / The development of renewable energy sources has becoming an increasing necessity and, in this context, biofuels have an important role. This study aimed to optimize the productivity of biomass and lipids of the microalgae Nannochloropsis gaditana in a low-cost system, focusing biofuel production. A culture system was designed with low-cost and accessible materials and the experiments tested the effect of different degrees of exposition of cells to light-dark, under 800?E m-2 s-1 irradiance. Three different culture depths (2, 4 e 8 cm) and two aeration ratios (0.25 e 1.00 L min-1 per L of culture) were tested. Light penetration into the cultures and the dry biomass yield were monitored daily. High yields of biomass and lipids were attained in the experiment with 4 cm depth and the high aeration ratio: 13.83g m-2 d-1 of biomass productivity and 20.50% lipid content, resulting in a lipid productivity of 2.84 g m-2 d-1. These results indicate the potential of N. gaditana for application in large-scale cultivation, since its lipid yield is higher than the soybean, the main feedstock plant for biodiesel production. The culture system developed can be inserted in a process of biomass scaling up for large-scale open microalgae cultures.