This report describes the development of a servo-controlled superconducting transition edge bolometer (STEB) intended for use as a sensitive broadband far infra-red (FIR), i. e. =1 mm to 100 μm wavelength, detector. A STEB uses a constant current biased superconducting film held on its superconducting transition, where it has a very high temperature coefficient of resistance, as a temperature sensing element for the absorbing substrate. Radiation absorbed by the substrate can be detected by measuring the change in voltage across the superconductor. The STEB's described in this thesis have in addition a resistive heater mounted on the substrate which is used as part of a servoregulating system maintaining the temperature of the bolometer at a fixed point on the superconducting transition. The potential advantages of this arrangement are higher frequency response, greater dynamic range, improved linearity and a STEB which can be more easily held on the superconducting transition. The STEB's described in this thesis used Sn films mounted on sapphire substrates as temperature sensors. Following a general introduction and review of previous work, the principles of operation of the servo system are described together with the theory of the system response, noise and the radiation performance of the detector. A detailed description is given of the construction of the bolometer, the bolometer optics, cryogenic apparatus and the servo circuitry. Optimisation of-the absorption of radiation by the bolometer substrate is studied using a transmission line analogue model. Experiments establishing the validity of the model are also included. The measured performance of the constructed STEB's is given and compared with theoretical predictions. The measured noise performance was found to be considerably better than predicted. Finally, suggestions are made for future improvements in detector-performance.

Thin-film silicon nitride (SiN) membranes mechanical resonators have been widely used for many fundamental opto-mechanical studies and sensing technologies due to their extremely low mechanical dissipation (high mechanical Q-factor). In this work, we experimentally demonstrate an opto-mechanical approach to perform thermal radiation sensing, using a SiN membrane resonator. An important aspect of this work is to develop a closed-form analytical heat transfer model for assessing the thermal coupling conditionbetween free-standing membranes and their environment. We also derive analytical expressions for other important intrinsic thermal quantities of the membrane, such as thethermal conductance, the heat capacity and the thermal time constant. Experimental results show good agreement with our theoretical prediction. Of central importance, we show that membranes of realistic dimensions can be coupled to their environment more strongly via radiation than by solid-state conduction. For example, membranes with 100nm thickness (frequently encountered size) are predicted to be radiation dominated when their side length exceeds 6 mm. Having radiation dominated thermal coupling is a key ingredient for reaching the fundamental detectivity limit of thermal detectors. Hence, our work proves that SiN membranes are attractive candidates for reaching the fundamental limit. We also experimentally exhibit the high temperature responsivity of the SiN membranes resonance, in which we shift a 88.7 KHz resonance by over 1 KHz when temperature increment on the membrane is approximately 2 K.

NASA's Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) program is a key component of the Earth Observing System (EOS). The CERES Proto-Flight Model (PFM) instrument is to be launched on NASA's Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) spacecraft in November, 1997. Each CERES instrument will contain three scanning thermistor bolometer radiometers to monitor the longwave, 5.0 to >100 microns, and shortwave, 0.3 to 5.0 microns, components of the Earth's radiative energy budget. High-level, first-principle dynamic electrothermal models of the CERES radiometric channels have been completed under NASA sponsorship. These first-principle models consist of optical, thermal and electrical modules. Optical characterization of the channels is ensured by Monte-Carlo-based ray-traces. Accurate thermal and electrical characterization is assured by transient finite-difference formulations. This body of research presents the evolution of these models by outlining their development and validation. Validation of the models is accomplished by simulating the ground calibration process of the actual instruments and verifying that the models accurately predict instrument performance. The result of this agreement is a high confidence in the model to predict other aspects of instrument performance. / Ph. D.

Mid-infrared (mid-IR) detection and imaging over atmospheric transparent 3-5 μm and 8-12 μm bands are increasingly becoming important for various space, defense and civilian applications. Various kinds of microbolometers offer uncooled detection of IR radiation. However, broadband absorption of microbolometers makes them less sensitive to spectrally resolved detection of infrared radiation and the fabrication is also very tedious involving multiple complex lithography steps. In this study, we designed an optical nano-antenna array based detector with narrow frequency band of operation. The structure consists of a two-element antenna array comprised of a perforated metallic hole array coupled with an underneath disk array which trap incident radiation as dipole currents. The energy is dissipated as electron plasma loss on the hole-disk system inducing close to ~100% absorption of the incident radiation. This near perfect absorption originates from simultaneous zero crossing of real component of permittivity and permeability due to the geometrical arrangement of the two antenna elements which nullifies overall charge and current distributions, prohibiting existence of any propagating electromagnetic modes at resonance. Moreover, the continuous perforated film allows probing of the induced "micro-current" plasma loss on each nano hole-disk pair via a weak bias current. Such optical antenna design enables flexible scaling of detector response over the entire mid-infrared regime by change in the antenna dimensions. Furthermore, the development of simple nanoimprint lithography based large area optical antenna array fabrication technique facilitates formation of low cost frequency selective infrared detectors.

This thesis concerns technical aspects related to the design and operation of the submillimetre common-user bolometer array 2 (SCUBA-2) instrument, a new wide-field camera for submillimetre astronomy currently undergoing commissioning on the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope on Mauna Kea, Hawaii. Offering unprecedented sensitivity and mapping capabilities, SCUBA-2 is expected to make a major impact in surveys of the sky at submillimetre wavelengths, a largely unexplored part of the electromagnetic spectrum, and provide better understanding of the formation and evolution of galaxies, stars and planets by providing large, unbiased samples of such objects. SCUBA-2 uses large arrays of bolometers, with superconducting transition edge sensors (TESs) as the temperature-sensitive element. TES devices are a relatively new technology, utilising the sharp resistance change between the normal and superconducting states to make a sensitive thermistor. Kilopixel arrays of such devices are multiplexed using superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs). This thesis derives the key detector performance parameters, and presents analysis of engineering data to confirm the detector performance on array scales. A key issue for bolometric instruments for far infrared and submillimetre astronomy is the need to operate at extremely low temperatures in the sub-kelvin and millikelvin ranges to achieve the necessary detector sensitivity. This work describes the design, testing and performance of the liquid cryogen-free millikelvin cryostat, the first such instrument to be deployed for astronomy. Subsequent chapters detail the design and testing of a magnetic shielding scheme for the instrument, an important aspect of the operation of superconducting devices. Based on experience with the construction and testing of this instrument, a number of potential improvements for future instruments are presented and discussed.

Les travaux de cette thèse ont porté sur les micro-bolomètres (détecteurs infrarouges non refroidis) qui fonctionnent selon le principe suivant : le rayonnement infrarouge incident provoque l’échauffement d’une membrane suspendue dont la résistivité électrique dépend de la température. Deux voies ont été explorées pour les améliorer, grâce aux nanotechnologies. D’une part, les propriétés optiques et électroniques (transport et bruit) des films de nanotube de carbone ont été étudiées afin d’évaluer le potentiel de ce nouveau matériau comme thermistor. Pour ce faire des procédés technologiques en salle blanche, des caractérisations et des modèles théoriques ont été mis au point. Après avoir obtenu les figures de mérite adaptées, cette étude a conclu au manque de potentiel de ce matériau pour une application aux micro-bolomètres. D’autre part, nous avons étudié des résonateurs sub-longueur d’onde basés sur des cavités métal-isolant-métal permettant d’obtenir des absorbants totaux, et omnidirectionnels. Un modèle analytique permettant de les décrire et de les concevoir rapidement a été mis au point. La combinaison de ces résonateurs à l’échelle sub-longueur d’onde a permis de mettre en évidence un phénomène de tri de photon et la possibilité de concevoir des absorbants large bande. Nous avons ainsi proposé (et breveté) l’utilisation de ces antennes comme absorbants pour les micro-bolomètres. En effet leur capacité à focaliser le champ dans des volumes sub-longueur d’onde permet d’introduire une rupture conceptuelle pour la conception de bolomètres à hautes performances. / This work was focused on bolometers (uncooled infrared sensors), which are based on the following principle: the incoming infrared radiation is absorbed by a self-standing membrane whose resistivity depends on temperature. In order to improve their design and performances, we explored two solutions based on nanotechnologies. On the one hand, optical and electronic (transport and noise) properties of carbon nanotube films have been investigated in order to evaluate the potential of this new material as a thermistor. Clean room processes, characterization benches and theoretical models have been developed. The obtained figures of merit allow to concluding on the lack of potential for applications in uncooled infrared sensors. On the second hand, subwavelength resonators based on metal-insulator-metal cavities, have been investigated and exhibit perfect, tunable and omni-directional absorption. An analytical model allowing a fast study and design of these resonators has been developed. Photon sorting and wideband absorption have been demonstrated thanks to the combination of these resonators at the sub-wavelength scale. We have thus proposed (and patented) the use of such “antennas” as micro-bolometer’s absorber. Indeed their capacity to focalize the incoming radiation at a subwavelength scale paves the way to the conception of high performance micro-bolometers.

L’observation de la double désintégration bêta sans neutrinos (0ν2β) impliquerait la violation de la conservation du numéro leptonique, signe d’une nouvelle physique au-delà du Modèle Standard, et permettrait d’établir la nature de Majorana des neutrinos. Les bolomètres scintillants cryogéniques sont parmi les détecteurs les plus prometteurs pour rechercher ce processus nucléaire extrêmement rare dans des noyaux qui sont théoriquement entre les plus favorables.Des scintillateurs de ZnMoO₄ ayant une masse de ∼ 0.3 kg, ainsi que des cristaux de Zn¹⁰⁰ MoO₄ enrichi dans l’isotope ¹⁰⁰Mo, ont été produits pour la première fois en utilisant la technique de Czochralski à faible gradient thermique. Les propriétés optiques et de luminescence des cristaux produits ont été étudiées pour évaluer le progrès de la qualité de la croissance des cristaux. Des tests à basse température avec un scintillateur de 313 g de ZnMoO₄et deux scintillateurs de Zn¹⁰⁰ MoO₄ enrichis ont été réalisées en surface au Centre de Sciences Nucléaires et de Sciences de la Matière. On a aussi mené des mesures à faible fond radioactif avec trois cristaux de ZnMoO₄ naturels et deux détecteurs enrichis, installés dans le setup d’ EDELWEISS au Laboratoire Souterrain de Modane.Pour optimiser la collecte de la lumière dans des bolomètres scintillants cryogénique de ZnMoO₄, nous avons simulé par une méthode Monte Carlo la collecte des photons de scintillation dans un module de détection pour différentes géométries, en utilisant le logiciel GEANT4. La réponse à la désintégration 2ν2β de ¹⁰⁰Mo a été simulée pour des détecteurs enrichis de Zn¹⁰⁰ MoO₄ avec forme et masse différente, avec le but de comprendre la structure des spectres 2ν2β en fonctionne de la forme des cristaux. Nous avons simulé aussi la performance de 48 cristaux de Zn¹⁰⁰ MoO₄ ayant une taille de Ø60 × 40 mm et installés dans le cryostat d’EDELWEISS. La contribution au fond de la contamination radioactive interne des cristaux, l’activation cosmogénique et la contamination radioactive du setup ont été simulées.Tenant compte de la modeste résolution temporelle des bolomètres à basse température, nous avons également étudié la contribution au fond à l'énergie Q₂β déterminé par des coïncidences aléatoires de signaux, en particulier du à la décroissance 2ν2β, qui est l'une des sources de fond les plus dangereuses dans les bolomètres cryogéniques. Des méthodes pour le rejet d’événements coïncidant par hasard ont été développées et comparées. Nous avons également analysé la dépendance de l'efficacité de rejet à l’égard des performances du détecteur cryogénique. / Observation of neutrinoless double beta (0ν2β) decay would imply the violation of lepton number conservation and definitely new physics beyond the Standard Model, establishing the Majorana nature of neutrinos. Cryogenic scintillating bolometers look the most promising detectors to search for this extremely rare nuclear process in a few theoretically the most favorable nuclei.ZnMoO₄ scintillators with a mass of ∼ 0.3 kg, as well as Zn¹⁰⁰ MoO₄ crystals enriched in the isotope ¹⁰⁰Mo were produced for the first time by using the low-thermal-gradient Czochralski technique. The optical and luminescent properties of the produced crystals were studied to estimate the progress in crystal growth quality. The low-temperature tests with a 313 g ZnMoO₄ scintillator and two enriched Zn¹⁰⁰ MoO₄ were performed aboveground in the Centre de Sciences Nucléaires et de Sciences de la Matière. The low background measurements with a three ZnMoO₄ and two enriched detectors installed in the EDELWEISS set-up at the Laboratoire Souterrain de Modane were carried out.To optimize the light collection in ZnMoO₄ cryogenic scintillating bolometers, we have simulated the collection of scintillation photons in a detector module for different geometries by Monte Carlo method using the GEANT4 package. Response to the 2ν2β decay of ¹⁰⁰Mo was simulated for the enriched Zn¹⁰⁰ MoO₄ detectors of different shape and mass to understand the dependence of 2ν2β decay spectra on crystal shape. We have simulated 48 Zn¹⁰⁰ MoO₄ crystals with a size of Ø60 × 40 mm installed in the EDELWEISS cryostat. The contribution to background from the internal radioactive contamination of the crystals, cosmogenic activation and radioactive contamination of the set-up were simulated.Taking into account the poor time resolution of the low temperature bolometers, we also studied contribution to background at the Q₂β energy of random coincidences of signals, in particular of 2ν2β decay, which is one of the most valuable sources of background in cryogenic bolometers. Methods of the randomly coinciding events rejection were developed and compared. We have also analyzed dependence of the rejection efficiency on a cryogenic detector performance.

Both the conditions of the epitaxial growth of YBCO thin films on silicon and the MOS devices operation at 77 K are well known. So, we have defined the technological solutions for the monolithic integration of high temperature superconductor bolometers (YBCO) and amplifiers based on PMOS devices. We have replaced their Al metallization by a Pt/Ti structure. The drain and source contacts were obtained by the preliminary formation of Mo-Si compounds. The YBCO thin film was deposited on silicon using CeO2/Yttria-Stabilized-Zirconia (Y SZ) buffer layers and showed a Tc of 86K. The bolometers and the transistors were successfully tested separetely at 300K and 77K. The co-fabrication on the same silicon substrate of YBCO and PMOS devices is a very promising starting point for a new generation of integrated circuits combining the advantages of the superconductive properties of YBCO and electronics in silicon technolgy.

Le développement considérable des détecteurs bolométriques au cours de la dernière décennie témoigne de la puissance et de la sensibilité de la mesure thermique d'un dépôt d'énergie. Notre étude se situe dans le cadre de la recherche d'une résolution ultime en énergie et en position. Nous avons mis au point un dispositif ultravide qui a rendu possible l'optimisation des conditions de dépôt, d'adhésion et de traitement thermique des détecteurs, grâce à la capacité de transférer l'échantillon entre les différentes enceintes, sans remise à l'air. Cet appareillage nous a permis de développer un bolomètre entièrement constitué de films minces, centré sur un matériau thermométrique de 10 nm d'épaisseur, ayant une très faible capacité calorifique et une très bonne sensibilité, grâce aux propriétés de la transition métal-isolant. Le volume et la forme de chacun des éléments du bolomètre composite sont définis par un masquage mécanique et une gravure ionique, ce qui nous permet de concevoir un détecteur pour lequel la capacité calorifique, le temps de réponse thermique et l'impédance électrique de chaque élément peuvent être définis en jouant sur l'épaisseur des films et leur facteur de forme. Deux bolomètres prototypes ont été fabriqués par cette méthode. L'un est destiné à l'astrophysique spatiale, l'autre est destiné à des mesures calorimétriques de monocouches atomiques. Nous montrons qu'une limite à la réduction de la taille du volume actif du matériau apparaît à basse température, et que cette limite est liée à la décroissance très rapide du couplage électron-phonon avec la température. Elle est évaluée, sur le plan théorique, pour un microbolomètre de 10 µm par 11 µm. Ceci nous conduit à montrer que la réduction de la température de fonctionnement aux plus basses températures ne représente pas un optimum pour un microbolomètre.

Orientador: Jacobus Willibrordus Swart / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Eletrica e de Computação / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-13T00:28:58Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DellaLucia_FelipeLorenzo_M.pdf: 2225962 bytes, checksum: 809ea9b9a2b7ea0c114f8fa449a539a1 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009 / Resumo: Este trabalho tem como objetivo desenvolver a tecnologia de microbolômetros resistivos que serão utilizados como sensores de infravermelho. Para isso, foi realizado um projeto inicial de dispositivo constituído de cálculos matemáticos e simulações computacionais a fim de prever o comportamento do dispositivo e ajustar parâmetros de processo de fabricação de modo a aperfeiçoar seu desempenho. De posse dos dados do projeto, foi realizada a fabricação. Foram fabricados microbolômetros resistivos de Silício Policristalino (Si-poli) em membranas suspensas para aumentar a isolação térmica do material resistivo. Ouro Negro (poroso) foi evaporado de forma a funcionar como camada absorvedora de radiação infravermelha. Eventuais problemas ocorridos durante a fabricação foram relatados, sanados e realimentados ao processo de fabricação de forma a simplificar e aperfeiçoar ao máximo a fabricação. Imagens realizadas por microscópio eletrônico de varredura e cortes realizados utilizando Feixe de Íons Focalizado mostram os detalhes da fabricação, indicando os materiais utilizados e a forma na qual a membrana de Si-poli está isolada do substrato. As medidas realizadas nos dispositivos fabricados revelam uma responsividade de 1,8 V/W, TCR de -0,95%/K, tempo de resposta de 13 ms e detectividade de 5,66.105 cm.Hz1/2.W-1. Apesar de algumas destas características não se encontrarem dentro dos parâmetros projetado, outras se assemelham às características de dispositivos comerciais e publicados na literatura. Como resultado deste trabalho, um ambiente favorável foi preparado para o desenvolvimento deste tipo de dispositivo. Matrizes de dispositivos poderão também ser desenvolvidas de forma a produzirem imagens em infravermelho que poderão ser utilizadas em diversas aplicações diferentes. / Abstract: This work has as a main goal to develop the resistive microbolometers technology that will be used as infrared sensors. In order to do so, an initial device design was performed using mathematical calculations and computational simulations were accomplished to predict the behavior and adjust the fabrication process parameters of this device to improve its performance. After the simulations, the fabrication was performed. Using Polysilicon as active element of the resistive microbolometers, suspended membranes were fabricated to enhance thermal isolation. Gold Black (porous) was evaporated to work as an infrared radiation absorber. Some problems that occurred during the fabrication were reported, solved and provided feedback to simplify and improve the fabrication. Some Scanning Electron Microscopy images and cuts using Focused Ion Beam show some fabrication details, indicating the materials used and how the Polysilicon membrane is isolated from the substrate. The measurements performed in the fabricated device show that the responsivity is about 1.8 V/W, the TCR is about -0.95%/K, the response time is 13 ms and the specific detectivity is 5,66.105 cm.Hz1/2.W-1. Although some of these characteristics are not within the designed parameters, others are similar to the characteristics of commercial devices and devices found in literature. As a result of this work, a favorable environment was prepared to the development of this kind of device. Arrays of devices can also be developed in order to produce infrared images which may be used in many different applications. / Mestrado / Eletrônica, Microeletrônica e Optoeletrônica / Mestre em Engenharia Elétrica