Stone sheep (Ovis dalli stonei) and a representative, undisturbed habitat for this species were studied in the northern Rocky Mountain Foothills from May 1969 through May 1971. A highly descriptive and holistic approach was taken in this introductory study, with physiography, soils, climate, and vegetation and the native sheep all being assessed. The study was concerned primarily with the alpine sheep habitat with emphasis on the critical winter range. Vegetation in this northern environment, reflecting physiographic, climatic and edaphic diversity, presents a complex, heterogeneous pattern locally to a degree seldom observed in more southern latitudes. Local variations in climate, on different slopes and aspects, have produced striking floristic differences within short distances. Moreover, soils developed over different bedrock formations and distrubed little by glaciation contributed considerably to diversity in the alpine habitat. Extremely acid soils characterized by impeded drainage and low temperatures limited forage production over much of the habitat. However, soils developed over calcareous parent materials on southern exposures had the favourable characteristics of moderately coarse texture, good drainage and an adequate nutrient status. These soils supported relatively productive plant communities and high quality forage for the sheep. The vegetation was also characterized by stability especially in the alpine zone; this zone is largely free of a fire history and is characterized by climax or long-term disclimax communities. Apparent deteriorating climate over long periods may be very significant, however, because in all likelihood they reduce favourable sheep habitat. Stone sheep were almost entirely dependent on the herbaceous alpine vegetation for their nutritional requirements. Even though plant succession proceeds slowly at these latitudes, seral grasslands tended to be invaded quite rapidly by shrubs which reduced the herbaceous cover and caused drifting snow to accumulate in winter. Grasses and sedges made up 95.6 percent of the winter diet and 78.5 percent of the fall diet of sheep collected in the Nevis Creek study area. Vegetative diversity contributed largely to a balanced habitat for the sheep and the fortuitous combinations of factors of climate, soils and vegetation provided critical winter range on largely snow-free slopes with southern exposures. Three plant communities provided winter forage but one, the Elymus - Agropyron community, provided almost 60 percent of the forage utilized by wintering sheep. About 80 percent of the standing crop in this community, which made up only about 20 percent of the winter range and four percent of the total productive habitat by area, was utilized by the sheep. Although productivity was typically low in this alpine ecosystem, forage quality was relatively high and was maintained in the cured stage by hard fall frosts and the persistent winter cold. Counts conducted in summer and winter over an extensive portion of the northern foothills and Rocky Mountains showed stone sheep populations averaged 35 percent mature ewes, 28 percent mature rams, 15 percent yearlings and 22 percent lambs (n=981). Early summer counts for two seasons in the study area showed an average ratio of 74 lambs per 100 ewes two years of age or older indicating a high birth rate and low mortality in the first few weeks of life. The lambs experienced almost 50 percent mortality by the end of their first year; however, most of it occurred early in the first winter. Classified counts of the ram segment of the population indicate a period of low mortality during adult life to age 8 or 10 years. Of course, intraspecific competition and malnutrition during severe winter conditions, disease and parasites, injury, predation and hunting all contributed to mortality to some degree. Stone sheep populations reflect the stability of their relatively undisturbed alpine habitat. Actinomycosis and lungworm were common in sheep at Nevis Creek but there is no record of large-scale enzootic die-offs in this or other stone sheep populations such as occur in bighorn populations due to lungworm-pneumonia disease. Stone sheep habitat, once remote, is rapidly becoming more accessible and subject to man's influence with development of the north. Interference in this northern environment by man must consider its sensitivity to abuse and its slow recovery. Any change or destruction of this northern sheep habitat, particularly the important and restricted elements such as the Elymus - Agropyron plant community on the Nevis Creek winter range, would unquestionably seriously reduce the sheep populations dependent upon it. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

This study was undertaken to determine minor element geochemistry of pyrite and the applicability of pyrite minor-element research to exploration for mineral deposits. Previous studies show that Co, Ni, and Cu are the most prevalent cations substituting for Fe in the pyrite lattice; significant amounts of As and Se can substitute for S. Other elements substitute less commonly and in smaller amounts within the lattice, in interstitial sites, or within discrete mechanically-admixed phases. Mode of substitution is determined most effectively with the electron microprobe. Cation substitution for Fe²⁺ is favored by transition elements with non-bonding "d" electrons .in low-spin configurations, an octahedral covalent radius similar to that of Fe (1.23 [symbol omitted] and high electronegativity. Anion substitution for S is favored by chalcogeri and pnigogen elements with a tetrahedral coordination radius close to 1.04 [symbol omitted] and high electronegativity. Statistical tests performed on several hundred pyrite analyses compiled from the literature and stored on computer cards support: (l) log-normal frequency distributions of minor elements in hydrothermal pyrite; (2) redistribution of minor elements in pyrite by metamorphism; (3) statistical differentiation of hydro-thermal, volcanic-exhalative, and syngenetic pyrites on the basis of Co and Ni concentrations and ratios; (4) relationship of minor element "spectra" and concentrations in disseminated pyrite to those in adjacent rocks; and (5) relationship of minor-element concentrations in hydrothermal pyrites to major ore-forming elements present. Forty pyrite samples from several distinct types of mineral deposits in the Smithers area, B.C. were analyzed for Co, Ni, Mn, Cu, Pb, and Zn using atomic-absorption spectrophotometry. Co concentrations are highest in pyrites from volcanic rocks, massive sulphide deposits and a breccia pipe. Ni and Mn concentrations are uniformly low. High contents of Cu, Fb, and Zn are caused by inclusions of common sulphides. Calculation of correlation coefficients for minor elements revealed that contamination does not significantly affect Co or Ni concentrations. Minor element data from the Smithers pyrites provides evidence for genetic relationships between several different mineral deposits, the presence of "metallogenetic" sub-provinces, and minor-element zonation in mineral deposits. Research into minor-element geochemistry of pyrite can be useful in exploration for mineral deposits; most effective use is during secondary stages of exploration. Most useful elements for exploration applications are Co, Ni, Cu, Au, Ag, Hg, Tl, Sn, As, and Se. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

Lherzolite nodules in basaltic rocks from three localities in British Columbia include rocks of mantle origin and crystal cumulates. Partial chemical analyses show that the compositional ranges of the minerals are narrow for both major and minor elements and fall within the ranges reported for lherzolite nodules elsewhere. Each suite is characterised by a definite range of concentrations of some elements. Olivine in nodules from Castle Rock and Jacques Lake show fabrics resulting from deformation in the solid state prior to their incorporation into their host rocks but those from Nicola Lake are undeformed. The distribution of iron and magnesium between coexisting phases is examined using an ideal ionic solution model. Differences in the distribution coefficients between the suites are probably due to different temperature and pressure conditions at the source of the nodules. The distribution of iron and magnesium between coexisting spinel and olivine gives nominal temperatures of formation of 838°C for Nicola Lake nodules, 1085°C for Jacques Lake nodules and >l600°C for Castle Rock nodules. Differences among the suites in the distribution, of Ni, Co, Mn and Zn between coexisting silicates are independent of variations in composition and are apparently due to different conditions of formation. The Castle Rock and Jacques Lake lherzolites are residual fragments of the upper mantle left after extraction of an under-saturated basaltic liquid from parental mantle rock. The source of the Castle Rock nodules probably lies at greater depth than that of the Jacques Lake nodules. The Nicola Lake nodules are crystal cumulates and formed at an early stage of basalt genesis within the upper mantle or lower crust. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

The purpose of the thesis is to review the development of the compensation system for traffic victims in British Columbia and to determined what changes are required in order to improve the equity, efficiency, and effectiveness of the system. The study examines this question from a broad perspective because of the inter-relationships among motor vehicle transportation, traffic safety, and the compensation system. The methods of investigation were twofold. The first step was to read all the pertinent literature on the subject which could be found in Vancouver. The second step was to communicate by telephone, by mail, or in person with individuals who possessed special knowledge with respect to one or more aspects of the subject matter. The latter research was invaluable because it updated the information available in the literature, revealed the practical ramifications of different concepts, and provided British Columbia viewpoints to a world wide problem. The conclusions of the thesis are based to a large extent on value judgments because of the paucity of quantifiable data and the absence of an actuarial analysis. In general the writer feels that more stringent procedures must be employed in the issuance and renewal of licences, and the public must accept automatic suspensions of licences for repeated traffic violations or accident involvement. Simultaneously, improvement in vehicle and roadway design, and emergency treatment of crash victims must be undertaken. The writer concludes that a no-fault, direct writer, and privately operated automobile compensation system is feasible at this time, and will provide a more equitable, effective, and efficient system of allocating premium dollars to a broader range of traffic victims. / Business, Sauder School of / Graduate

The flood plain of the Fraser River in the Lower Fraser Valley is rapidly becoming urbanized, this being most evident in the municipality of Richmond located on Lulu Island. A problem arises due to the fact that the Fraser River is subject to frequent floods of varying magnitudes. To prevent flood damages a system of dykes has been constructed around Lulu Island. Evidence indicates, however, that even with the dykes there still exists a substantial residual flood hazard. A major flood in Richmond would constitute a financial disaster. Consequently, if development is to occur on the flood plain, additional adjustments to the flood hazard are necessary. The planning process in Richmond has apparently failed to recognize this necessity. To understand the observed breakdown in the planning process the literature suggests that the problem may be fruitfully studied by examining the decision-making process with respect to perception of the flood hazard and alternative adjustments to the hazard. The hypothesis proposed is that the planning officials are aware of the alternate adjustments but policies to implement these measures are not undertaken because of lack of support from the general public who do not perceive the flood problem or ways to cope with it. The methodology used to study the problem involves three steps. The first is the definition and description of flood plain management policy at all government levels operating in British Columbia. The second step is to identify the public decision-making process with respect to flood plain management. Interviews with key officials in this process are reported upon according to their perceptions of the flood hazard and adjustments to the flood hazard. The third step is to sample perceptions of flood plain land-users by means of a questionnaire to determine their perceptions of the hazard and adjustments. The study shows that the officials are aware of the hazard but do not adequately perceive non-structural adjustments. The general public is poorly informed and thus shows little concern about the subject. The results indicate that perception of the hazard is a major factor in the adjustment adoption process. It appears that a change in decision-makers' perceptions will be necessary to bring about a change in the planning practise with respect to flood plain management. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

The subject of this study is road investment in B.C. made through the Provincial Department of Highways in the years 19^6-71, The pattern of investment is described and is used to indicate policies and objectives being evolved over the period. An effort is also made to evaluate the impact of the investment in terms of the benefit to certain classes of road users. Data on investment were gathered from the Annual Reports of the Minister, and assembled according to area, item, time period and class of road. The nature of investment has been given close attention because it is felt that its role has been somewhat overlooked in the previous studies of the relationship between transport infrastructure and economic activity. That relationship has usually been treated in summary form, with highly generalized indices. There is an attempt in this study to find a rationale of spending to explain the variations between areas, and from which to draw inferences about policies. This leads on to closer examination of the trunk network. Some structural measures of improvement in the network were calculated, but were not very helpful. This study argues that the improvement has to be valued by some user before it is translated into increased accessibility and responses amongst economic activities. Because improvements mean different things to different users and non-users, different approaches to evaluation have to he taken. A large truck is chosen for the case of B.C., and operating costs are simulated for the roads existing in 1952, 1962 and 1971. The changes in truck operating costs are used to explore the meanings of ˈimprovementˈ and the ˈjustificationˈ of certain investments. An estimate of annual savings to trucks from road improvements is derived from the simulated costs. The approach through investment is found to aid understanding of route and network development. It provides criteria by which to evaluate other aspects of road development, such as the road needs of certain populations, and the effects of external connections and through paths. It reveals the highly variable per mile cost of links, and emphasizes the interdependence of different types of spending. It suggests a relationship between inter-urban and local spending and traffic, which should be worth following up in other situations. Among other things, it is discovered that there has been a tendency to spend an increasing proportion on the branch or feeder roads. In the last few years, there has been an increasing concentration on urban or near-urban roads for the relief of congestion. The purposes of roads and routes are seen to change over time. The pattern of spending has been much affected by the difficulty of road construction in B.C. Increases in election years have stood out markedly. These have ˈcostˈ the Province a significant amount through inflated contract prices. Some suggestions are made on how over-the-road savings could make their way through to freight rates, schedules and services, and thus affect the client economic activities. The estimate of annual savings of $15-20 million to large trucks is a conservative and partial measure of benefit. The aim was not a definitive measure of improvement and partial benefit, but to use the measure in different contexts and reveal the different meanings and quantities of improvement. Different ˈjustificationsˈ for link investment were provided from different perspectives. The interdependence of links and of investment allocations in the total system was emphasized. It is the main strength of this modified network perspective that it allows the simultaneous consideration of flows, structure, link importance and nodal accessibility. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

Since 1966, the condominium form of housing has represented a steadily increasing proportion of the housing market in British Columbia. Due to its relative novelty, condominium owners were to some extent acquiring an unknown quantity prior to purchase. It is the aim of this study to delineate the housing experience, specifically residential satisfaction, of these owners to date. In addition, the paucity of research on the measurement of residential satisfaction has suggested a direction of inquiry which could be further explored. A questionnaire survey was employed as the major data gathering device in two municipalities in the Greater Vancouver area. Various statistical techniques, primarily discriminant and regression analysis were used to test three specific hypotheses regarding condominium. These hypotheses were: (1) The housing expectation (relative satisfactions) of condominium owners is not matched by the reality of their situation. (2) The area (municipality) in which condominium owners live is a significant factor in distinguishing between owners as regards their socio-economic characteristics and their perceived relationship with their residential environment. (3) The attitudes and behaviour patterns of condominium owners vary significantly in relation to differing sizes of condominium projects. Generally, the first hypothesis was proven false while the other two hypotheses were proven true. In summary, the study approach was useful in achieving some relevant feedback on the views and attitudes of condominium owners, and in suggesting a method to test the accountability of condominium housing policies and procedures. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

Because of increasing technological change in work situations, adult education has begun to focus more upon the role of occupations in urbanized societies. The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between participation in adult education and measures of occupational status, category, mobility, and job satisfaction among non-farm residents of two rural areas in British Columbia. West Kootenay and Vanderhoof West, representing areas of low and high socio-economic standing, were selected for analysis from fifteen areas surveyed by the ARDA Canada Land Inventory Socio-Economic Project in British Columbia. Interview schedules completed in 1967 surveys of those areas were used as the source of data. Excluded were schedules for farmers, retired, and unemployed persons. The West Kootenay sample consisted of 104 respondents, twenty of whom were participants in adult education, while Vanderhoof West was represented by 130 respondents, including twenty-four participants. Opportunities for participation in adult education appeared to be equal between the two areas, although the areas differed significantly with respect to the distribution of courses among functions of adult education. Participants differed significantly from non-participants as they had higher occupational status than non-participants in both survey areas. West Kootenay participants exhibited upward sequential job mobility to a significantly greater extent than did West Kootenay non-participants. A general trend for participants to have greater upward occupational mobility than non-participants was evident, although the differences were not always significant. When participants in both areas were compared, no significant differences were found with respect to any of the four occupational variables. The results of the study suggest that participation in adult education by non-farm residents of rural British Columbia is not strongly associated with occupational measures. / Education, Faculty of / Educational Studies (EDST), Department of / Graduate

An ecological study of grassland communities separated by fence lines in the Southern Interior of British Columbia was conducted from spring 1968 to spring 1969. Measurements to compare plant species composition, herbage yield, growth habits and edaphic features on both sides of the fences were taken in the field. Soil organic matter was determined in the laboratory and moisture penetration patterns were demonstrated in the greenhouse. Heavy grazing resulted in the removal of the principal climax caespitose species and their replacement by shrubs, annuals and rhizomatous grasses. There were reductions in the composition, herbage yield and vigor of the caespitose species at all sites following heavy grazing. The success of the increasers under heavy grazing seemed to be favored by possession of rhizomes, presence of unpalatable flowering culms and inflorescences, shortness of tillers and an elaborate means of seed dispersal. The vegetational changes introduced by grazing on the heavily grazed side, resulted in a high level of organic matter in the top 25 cm. of soil, a high soil moisture content and high summer and low winter soil temperatures. The dense vegetation on the lightly grazed side modified both summer and winter soil temperatures. A technique was developed to determine the ability of caespitose grasses to redistribute moisture in the soil. It was demonstrated that aerial parts of Agropyron spicatum collect light rains and concentrate them in the rooting zone of the plant. This phenomenon is likely to be one of the adaptive features which enables caespitose species to dominate arid habitats. It is possible that the great susceptibility of Agropyron spicatum and other caespitose grasses to heavy grazing might be related to soil moisture disturbances introduced by the removal of aerial parts of the plants. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

This study was initiated to determine the impact of clear-cutting, slashburning and skidroads on deep (>3 feet) coarse glacial soils at low elevations (<1000 ft. above sea level) of coastal British Columbia. Infiltration capacity, as measured with double-ring, constant-head infiltrometers, was the main measure of physical-hydrologic soil condition. The relationships between infiltration capacity and soil variables, including aeration porosity, total porosity, bulk density, texture, organic matter content and antecedent soil water content, were examined. The average infiltration rates of the undisturbed, forested areas were 17.92 inches/hour on well-drained acid brown wooded soil and 25.99 inches/hour on well-drained degraded acid brown wooded soil. Skidroads caused drastic reductions in infiltration. Average infiltration over a three hour period was 3.66 inches/hour on well-drained acid brown wooded soil three years after moderate skid-road use, 12.36 inches/hour on well drained degraded acid brown wooded soil three years after light skidroad use and 5.33 inches/ hour on moderately well-drained orthic podsol soil ten years after heavy skidroad use. Slashburning significantly reduced infiltration, although not to the levels of skidroads. Two years after burning, average infiltration over a three hour period was 13.42 inches/hour on well- drained acid brown uooded soil and 17.87 inches/hour on well-drained degraded acid brown wooded. Clearcutting did not significantly alter infiltration. Average infiltration over a three hour period was 2D.51 inches/hour on well-drained degraded acid brown wooded soil and 20.17 inches/hour on moderately well-drained orthic podsol soil. Some of the variations in infiltration by treatment and soil type are explained with the aid of multiple regression techniques. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate