The impact of immigrants on Canadian society and economy has been, and still is, a very live issue. This study focuses on the post-war Dutch immigrants in the Lower Fraser Valley, British Columbia, to examine the impact of a particular cultural group on the life and landscape of a region. The emphasis is on the agricultural Dutch immigrants because they have made the most noticeable impact in the Valley, through their close association with the dairy industry. The distribution, settlement, social characteristics and occupational selection of the Dutch immigrants were considered, to identify any pattern in the cultural geography of the Valley which has arisen from cultural differences between the Dutch immigrants and the other Valley residents. A field survey of a sample of Dutch immigrants in the Lower Fraser Valley seemed the most satisfactory method for the investigation of such a topic. Published primary and secondary sources are negligible or of limited value. For example, in the Canadian census the definition of 'Dutch' is ambiguous, resulting in the inclusion of Germans and Mennonites in the 'Dutch' classification. The study is primarily based on data acquired in 1964 through interviews with Dutch immigrants, community leaders, municipal and agricultural officers in the Valley. Telephone directories and church registers were used to select the sample. The interview included personal and social characteristics, emigration and locational motivations, the occupations and the innovations of the Dutch immigrants. The Dutch are a succession group. They acquired farms and residences where they were available. Their impact is subtle and more difficult to define than that- of a pioneering group. There is no large compact settlement with a distinctive Dutch form, or architecture, to compare with the settlement of some of the initial immigrant groups in Canada. The most spectacular impact on settlement has been the creation of Pitt Polder. Through the reclamation of marshland, the Dutch have extended the area of settlement in the Valley. The Dutch account for four per cent of the Valley population, but they form more than ten per cent of the population of those municipalities which include the major dairy regions, such as Pitt Meadows, Kent and Matsqui. The dispersed distribution of the Dutch has not prevented the development of strong social ties among that section of the immigrant group that has established Dutch churches. This suggests that if there is a sufficiently strong bond among people, religion in this case, physical proximity is not an essential prerequisite for the development of a community. The most distinctive social characteristic of the post-war Dutch immigrants is the significance of religion as a variable in their migration, location and rate of integration. The socio-religious divisions of the Netherlands society are apparent among the Dutch immigrants. The Orthodox Calvinists have shown a greater readiness to establish ethnic churches, separate schools and separate trade unions; they have the fewest contacts with Canadians; and have the slowest rate of integration. Their impact on the social geography of the Valley is the easiest to identify. It is expected that their social identity will last longer than that of the rest of the Dutch immigrant group. The casual observers' linkage of the rural Dutch immigrants with dairying has been verified. There are over four hundred Dutch dairy farmers forming a fifth of the producers in the Valley. In the post-war period dairying was an economically attractive agricultural enterprise, yet only Dutch immigrants have penetrated it to any extent, suggesting that there is a cultural preference involved in the Dutch occupational selection of dairying. Through competition and by example the Dutch dairy farmers have encouraged the adoption of intensive land use methods in Valley dairying. This contribution to dairying is an example of the value of a skilled immigrant group to the economy of an immigrant country. The rural Dutch immigrants have been distinguished by their association with dairying, but already there is an indication that this characteristic will fade. Some second generation Dutch immigrants have selected urban occupations in preference to dairying. The strength of religious ties among the Orthodox Calvinists suggests that this group will maintain their distinctiveness for the longest period as there is little pressure in Canadian society to relinquish a particular religion, compared with the trend in favour of urban occupations. The Orthodox Calvinists, rather than the dairy farmers, may be the section of the post-war Dutch immigrants to have the most marked impact on the cultural geography of the Lower Fraser Valley in the future. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

This paper reports upon an investigation conducted into the movement of softwood lumber from British Columbia to the United States during the years 1955 to 1962. The principal method used in the course of the study was an examination of the briefs and statements submitted to the United States Tariff Commission during hearings held in Washington, D.C, in October 1962. In order to keep the material within the context of current events, some space was devoted to a brief summary of pertinent political and economic occurances in both the United States and Canada during the last part of 1962 and the first half of 1963. Thereafter six chapters are devoted to comparisons between forests and extraction, conversion, and distribution costs in the Pacific Northwest of the United States and in the province of British Columbia. Basically the same type of forest is found in these two regions, but the utilization and development of the areas have been different, as have been the competitive factors which have arisen in the areas. Many of the pertinent data have been put into tabular form for easy reference. The penultimate chapter summarizes the briefs and statements submitted by the interested United States lumber dealers, shippers, and producers, and by the Council of Forest Industries of British Columbia, which represented the British Columbia lumber men, at the United States Tariff Commission hearings. The conclusions reached as a result of this investigation were (1) there is a shortage of domestic softwood lumber in the United States which can best be filled by British Columbia lumber imports, (2) British Columbia lumber producers have an advantage over Pacific Northwest producers with regard to stumpage costs, (3) British Columbia lumber producers have no advantage over Pacific Northwest producers with regard to conversion costs, (4) Distribution costs greatly favour British Columbia lumber producers with regard to water-borne lumber, and slightly favour American Pacific Northwest lumber producers with regard to railborne shipments, (5) the exclusion of the Pacific Northwest lumber producers from the Puerto Rican lumber market illustrates the impact of the Jones Act restrictions on the United States lumber industry, (6) in addition to the cost advantages which the British Columbia producers have in the United States Atlantic Coast market, they enjoy intangible advantages which may be characterized as marketing techniques which have created good will for Canadian producers in the American markets, and (7) United States softwood lumber producers in the Pacific Northwest could improve their competitive position in the Domestic market by internal reforms, although they were unable to have imposed on their behalf prohibitive tariffs or quotas. Finally, several suggestions as to possible areas for internal reform are put forward. / Business, Sauder School of / Graduate

The Guichon Creek Batholith, located in south-central British Columbia, contains several large, low grade copper deposits of extreme economic importance. A three dimensional model for the batholith has been determined on the basis of a gravity survey conducted in 1971. In addition the gravity data has been compared with the filtered aeromagnetic maps of the batholith. A striking correlation between the spatial relationship of the mineral deposits and the core of the batholith has been discovered. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

My study is directed towards understanding the pattern of evolution taking place among populations of Peromyscus inhabiting the islands of British Columbia. A standard morphological approach, as veil as karyotype and reproductive isolation analyses, have shown that a taxonomic revision of this faunal group is desirable. I have proposed such a revision. A discriminant analysis utilizing morphological measurements reveals the existence of two distinctive phenotypes within the islands surveyed. Breeding studies, involving 78 pairs of insular Peromyscus, indicate that reproductive isolation exists between the two morph groups. Furthermore, when given the choice the large and small morph groups prefer the company of their own type. Extensive phallic variation occurs among island populations but no suggestion of taxonomic relationships are discernible. Karyotype analysis reveals that there are two distinct karyotypic patterns. The karyotype correlates with the two morphotype classifications. The large morph has a high number of metacentric chromosomes and the small morph has a low number. The high metacentric number karyotype is identical to that possessed by the morphologically similar Peromyscus sitkehsis known to inhabit the islands to the north of the.study group. Karyotype variation within each of the tvo major divisions is minimal. I have proposed that the karyotypic differences between these two morphs is significant at the species level. The large morph should be considered as P. sitkensis and the small phenotype should remain as P. maniculatus. The degree and rapidity of evolution within these Peromyscus populations requires a broadening in the scope of some subspecific taxa. Change in subspecific nomenclature has been indicated. Additional studies of Peromyscus upon the adjacent mainland and Vancouver Island are required before meaningful relationships can be expressed between insular and mainland groups at the subspecific level. / Science, Faculty of / Zoology, Department of / Graduate

The increased scale of some operations, in certain industries, necessitates the input of very large quantities of raw materials. These are frequently far removed from the centres of processing—resulting in high transportation costs. It has been found that this increase in trade and in the scale of commodity movement has, during the past decade, lead to the introduction of the super bulk carrier. The study shows that the use of very large ships reduces transport costs significantly and at the same time provides industry with the size of shipment required for large scale operation. These dry bulk vessels involve a huge capital outlay and must move large quantities each year in order to turn a profit—the profitable use of these large vessels depends on a reduction in port time. Ship's time in port can be reduced by increasing the rate of loading. To increase the rate of materials handled it is necessary either to have a sufficient stockpile on hand or to supply the terminal at a rate which would allow continuous loading from the train to the ship. A transportation system utilizing large ships is examined; the components or sub-systems are identified and their individual requirements determined. It is shown that the introduction of super bulk carriers has necessitated changes in the design of terminal as well as in the inland transportation system. The cost of these changes, however, is more than offset by the savings resulting from the use of the super carriers and improvements in inland transportation. The study investigates world commodity trade, identifies those raw materials which are transported in bulk carriers, and isolates the commodities which move in sufficient quantities to allow the employment of super bulk carriers. Exports and imports through West Coast Canadian ports are examined to determine if the same or additional products could utilize these large vessels in the Canadian context. The study concludes that coal is the only commodity which will move through a British Columbia port consistently in super bulk carriers and that the destination will be Japan. It is also shown that after 1975 there will be a requirement for an additional bulk terminal berth and that a second berth will be required before 1985. Utilization of the new technology for the land and sea components has necessitated that new criteria be developed for the selection of marine terminal sites. The scale of new facilities in turn, has made the non-technical considerations of greater importance than in the past. The requirements for super bulk carriers are more stringent than for conventional ships. The study points out that, in the provision and operation of suitable facilities, conflicts can arise due to (a) the requirement for large amounts, up to 100 acres per berth, of level land, (b) maintenance of water depth in channel and at the berth may require dredging, (c) unit train operation causing noise disturbance and conflicts with surface transportation, and (d) the dust pollution problem. It is recommended that when new marine terminals are being considered that the non-technical effects be given consideration along with the economic and physical requirements. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

With the increasing importance of network planning for water resource management and inventory of supply of water there is need for new analytical methods of estimating flows from sparsely gauged regions. A new approach to estimating mean annual runoff was proposed by Solomon et al. and reported in "Water Resources Research" journal, Volume 4, October 1968. In this technique both meteorological and hydrological information are used to assess the mean annual precipitation, temperature and runoff distribution over large areas. The study area is broken up into a large number of squares and physiographic parameters are determined for each square; available meteorological data are used to derive multiple linear regression equations which relate precipitation and temperature to physiographic parameters and from these equations precipitation, temperature and evaporation are estimated for each square; runoff is obtained by subtracting evaporation from precipitation for each square and the runoff from all the squares is summed to obtain an estimate of the runoff for the entire basin; if the computed runoff disagrees with the recorded runoff, the precipitation for each square is adjusted and the procedure is repeated until the computed runoff approaches the observed runoff to the desired degree. The method has already been applied to a region in British Columbia with promising results. In the following study, use of the available basic data have been made to develop a seasonal estimate approach to the "grid square" method and in particular to consider the evaporation component and the possible incorporation of snow course data, two components which have not yet been adequately developed for use in the method under British Columbia conditions. Considering the evaporation component, it was found that apart from Turc's formula, used in the original grid square method, the Thornthwaite evapotranspiration method was the only other practical method for estimating evapotranspiration over wide areas as required by the grid square method. An attempt at an independent comparison of the two methods on an evaporation basis alone proved to be inconclusive due to the lack of adequate data but a comparison in actual computer trials of the grid square method showed that on basis of the first estimate of runoff distribution the Thornthwaite approach gave significantly better results. To incorporate the snow course data into the grid square method several approaches were taken in which an attempt at estimating on a seasonal basis the melt prior to April 1st, the date of snow surveys, was unsuccessful but showed insignificant melt which was subsequently ignored and an attempt at estimating annual precipitation at snow courses to supplement the meteorological station data was also unsuccessful. However, an attempt in which the snow course data was added to a segregated winter precipitation estimate at the meteorological stations proved to be successful and gave a small but significant improvement to the first estimate of regional precipitation and runoff distribution thus amplifying the potential use of snow course data in supplementing meteorological data for defining more clearly the regional variation of precipitation. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Civil Engineering, Department of / Graduate

The Rhacomitrium heterostichum complex in British Columbia consists of four species and five varieties: R. "laxum", R. heterostichum, R. heterostichum var. affine, R. sudeticum, R. sudeticum var. macounii, R. brevipes, R. brevipes var. "laevis", var. "eramulosum" and var. "microcarpiformis". Within each of these taxa minor variations occur. R. sudeticum tends to be confined to sub-alpine and alpine localities and R. heterostichum to lower elevations, while R. "laxum" and R. brevipes show no altitudinal limitations. There appears to be a positive correlation between nature of branching and details of leaf apex structure to moisture conditions: short branches, abbreviated hair point and shorter leaf cells in the leaf apex being commoner in specimens of wet sites than in specimens of dry sites. Experimental evidence is needed to determine phenotypic plasticity in these characters, since they are widely used to distinguish among the various taxa of the R. heterostichum complex. / Science, Faculty of / Botany, Department of / Graduate

The provision of adequate housing for all its people remains a problematical objective for Canada. A new type of cooperative housing—condominium--has recently received specific legal sanction in most provinces and territories in Canada with the exception of Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island and the North-West Territories. This thesis considers this innovative housing concept in light of the population trends and housing needs of British Columbia and shows that condominium is merely one of a variety of alternative housing types but one that may prove increasingly effective in helping meet future housing demand. The historical evolution of the condominium concept is outlined after which the author carefully distinguishes between condominiums and other similar forms of housing. The author affirms that Federal and Provincial housing policies do not discriminate against residential condominiums and further hypothesizes that Municipal housing policies and bureaucratic procedures do not frustrate their development, in contrast with the findings of a similar study concerning a similar form of housing—continuing cooperatives, which found that a lack of specific Provincial and Municipal policy had retarded their formation. Governmental policy is reviewed in general and its specific application to residential condominium development is assessed with the conclusion generally confirming the author's original affirmation and hypothesis. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

Geomagnetic depth-sounding was carried out in a large-spaced profile across central British Columbia in order to map the conductivity structure of the crust and upper mantle in the central Canadian Cordillera. Geomagnetic variographs were set up from east of Jasper to Prince Rupert in two successive east-west profiles during the summer of 1969. Numerical analysis of geomagnetic storm activity indicates that the discontinuity in the attenuation of the vertical magnetic field, as first reported for south-eastern British Columbia by Hyndman (1963), is located in the area of the Rocky Mountain Trench. All stations to the west exhibit typical 'low Z' characteristics and no or little anomalous induction; stations to the east of the trench display a strong, high-frequency Z-variation content as well as anomalous field enhancement. Power spectral and polarization analyses show a first order agreement with the two-dimensional conductivity structure model proposed by Caner (1970) for south-western Canada. Second-order effects suggest a more complex model consisting of two conductivity discontinuities: One shallow structure strikes roughly NW-SE at a depth of 10 to 15 km. and may be associated with the 'edge' of a hydrated layer located at the western front of the Rocky Mountains; a second much deeper structure, trending approximately E-W, is located south of Kootenay Lake and is possibly associated with a strike-slip feature in the upper mantle (Lajoie and Caner, 1970). / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

In this study, plant sales records for a 12-month period ending in 1968 from five British Columbia Lower Mainland nurseries were compiled for analysis of quantities sold of each species, their cash value and nursery size, and the types of customers to whom plants were sold. Landscape projects designed by three Vanouver landscape architects over a two-year period, 1967 - 1968, were studied to learn how plants were being used, and what quantities and species were required for 10 types of landscape situations and six geographic locations. Plants were listed according to quantities sold or specified to show species which were being used in large amounts. Computerized methods of data collecting were employed to test methods of conducting a continuing inventory of plant material requirements and supplies. Sales data from five nurseries were compared to British Columbia Department of Agriculture totals for a similar period of time 1966-1967. On the basis of acreage, the sample was estimated to be 37.8% of the total nursery production for Lower Mainland British Columbia. The projected sample data were comparable to government figures in most plant catagories except for estimates of total sales of roses, rhododendrons and azaleas. This suggests that nurseries specializing in roses, or rhododendrons and azaleas sell a large proportion of these plants. Plants were shipped from the nurseries studied to many types of customers. In the sample it was found that 58.9% of the value of sales were made to purchasers within the immediate area. Shipments to the Prairie Provinces constituted the largest percentage of the value of plants sold outside the Lower Mainland, 13.6% of total value. Large growers within the Lower Mainland purchased a larger proportion of plants sold than any other type of customer, 17.9% of total value. This figure shows the extent of specialization and interdependence of the industry. It also indicates that survey figures based on nursery sales do not give a true estimate of production, as perhaps 20% to 25% of the value of sales represent plants traded within the industry two or more times. Retailers, landscape contractors and large growers in the sample purchased plant material of nearly equal value. The garden centre type of operation appeared to be the major retail outlet purchasing nursery plants from growers, rather than the chain or department store. Distribution figures determined in this survey, however, can only be a small indication of the total picture, since the nurseries tend to be a highly variable group. Data collected from landscape architects' planting plans was analysed in a number of ways: First, plant species were ranked in order of quantities used over a two-year period. Second, the quantities of plants specified for 10 types of landscape projects and for six geographic locations were listed, and the average number of plants used for each type of landscape development was calculated. Third, The frequency of use of various plant species and cultivars was examined. Plants used frequently by three landscape architects were listed, and also plants used by two of the three designers, or by only one designer. It is apparent that the landscape architects made frequent use of a comparatively short list of plants, and that a few species were specified in large quantities for mass-planting effects. Broadleaved evergreens and ground covers were the two plant categories favoured by the landscape architects; quantities specified annually made up a large part of the total Lower Mainland production of these plants, 58.7% and 69.1% respectively. In comparison, the quantities of conifers and trees used by landscape architects was very low, only 5.3% and 2.6% of estimated Lower Mainland production. Most of the plants used in great quantities were specified by all three designers studied, although it was shown that one landscape architect alone can create a big demand for a particular plant when he uses a favourite species frequently. Ways were suggested in which growers and landscape architects may cooperate to introduce new types of landscape plants to the short list of frequently-used species. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate