Limitations to broadleaf weed management options in chickpea present obstacles for stable production. Even with low weed incidence, chickpea yield can be severely affected, creating need for an integrated weed management system. Due to zero-tillage commonly practiced in Saskatchewan, there is heavy reliance on herbicides. The chickpea breeding program at the Crop Development Centre, University of Saskatchewan, has developed chickpea cultivars with resistance to imidazolinone (IMI) class of herbicides. The objectives of this study were: (i) to examine the reaction of four chickpea cultivars – CDC Luna, CDC Corinne, CDC Alma, and CDC Cory - to imazamox, imazethapyr, and a combination of imazamox and imazethapyr under field conditions; and (ii) to examine cultivar responses to IMI applications at different growth stages: 2-4 node, 5-8 node, and 9-12 node stage. Field experiments were conducted over five site years in Saskatchewan, Canada in 2012 and 2013. For each experiment, visual injury ratings, plant height, node, and internode length were recorded at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days after each herbicide application (DAA). Days to flowering (DTF), days to maturity (DTM), number of primary branches, pods per plant, harvest index, and seed yield were additional measurements for elucidating physiological responses. Conventional cultivars, CDC Luna and CDC Corinne, had moderate to severe visual injury scores compared to resistant cultivars, CDC Alma and CDC Cory, with minimal to no visual injury after IMI treatment. Height stopped increasing and node development slowed for conventional cultivars treated with IMI herbicides. This susceptibility to IMI herbicides was also recognized with a delay in the DTF and DTM. Despite significant negative response, CDC Luna and CDC Corinne were able to recover throughout the field season, resulting in no yield loss from IMI treatments. Resistant cultivars CDC Alma and CDC Cory demonstrated no negative response from IMI herbicide application compared with the untreated controls. Growth, in terms of height and node development, DTF, DTM, and yield were not significantly different between IMI treated and control treatments. Resistant cultivars tolerated IMI herbicide at all growth stages tested. These results demonstrate potential for use of IMI herbicides in chickpea, expanding the currently limited options for broadleaf weed control.

Weed control is a critical component in pastures and hayfields in order to ensure maximum forage yields. Typically, broadleaf weed control in pastures and hayfields is achieved through the use of synthetic auxin. However, these herbicides also control desirable broadleaf species such as forage legumes, including white clover. Use of herbicides can lead to severe injury and often complete elimination of white clover, making it difficult for producers to maintain legumes in mixed grass-legume swards while controlling weeds. It is often desirable to have legumes present in the sward due to their high nutritive forage value and ability to fix nitrogen compared to grass only swards. Florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D is a new herbicide which is reported to control broadleaf weed species, while preserving white clover. Little published research exists on this herbicide, particularly for use in pastures and hayfields. Research evaluating sward composition indicates that florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D is effective in controlling broadleaf weed species while also preserving greater amounts of white clover than any other herbicide treatments. Florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D also resulted in significantly more forage grass production than the nontreated control. Florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D was less effective than other herbicides when applied via fertilizer impregnation. Additional research assessing the spectrum of broadleaf weed control found that florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D is a viable herbicide for the control of several broadleaf weed species including bulbous buttercup, Canada thistle, broadleaf plantain, plumeless thistle, and common ragweed. However, florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D was less effective than other herbicides for controlling certain weeds, such as horsenettle. White clover was injured from florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D, but was able to fully recover in 90 to 120 days. There were no differences in white clover response between the four varieties tested. When evaluating establishment of forage species, florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D did not injure or reduce biomass of tall fescue or orchardgrass plantings, indicating a high level of safety. Florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D was also safe to both drilled and frost seeded clover when applied prior to and at planting. Greenhouse trials revealed that flowering white clover is more sensitive to herbicides compared to vegetative white clover, and that safety of white clover to florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D is dependent upon use rate. Considerations such as weed species present, and the amount of white clover injury that is considered acceptable will dictate the decision to utilize florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D in pastures and hayfields. This research demonstrates the effectiveness and overall utility of florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D for use in pastures and hayfields due to the effectiveness of weed species as well as the level of safety to white clover. / Doctor of Philosophy / Pastures and hayfields are a critical component in livestock production. Grazing livestock perform best on highly nutritious forages. Legumes such as white clover are highly nutritious in forage systems and offer other benefits such as the ability to fixate nitrogen. Conversely, weed species negatively impact forage production by competing for resources with desirable forage species. Additionally, many species of broadleaf weeds are toxic to livestock. Because grasses are the backbone of forage systems, the majority of weed control efforts are aimed at controlling broadleaf weed species. However, beneficial forage legumes such as white clover are susceptible to broadleaf herbicides commonly used. This creates a management dilemma for producers who wish to control troublesome weeds, but also have white clover present in their pastures and hayfields. Florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D is a herbicide combination which is new for pastures and hayfields. This herbicide is reported to control broadleaf weeds while also preserving white clover. Research trials were conducted in order to determine if florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D could be used in forage systems to control weeds, without killing white clover. Several research trials were established to evaluate florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D for broadleaf weed control and white clover safety. Research trials were established to determine the effect of florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D on the number and overall amount of forage produced and the proportion of weeds and desirable forages as affected by herbicide treatment. Florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D resulted in a 140% increase in forage grass production, and more legume production than any other herbicide treatment, while also decreasing the quantity and amount of broadleaf weed species. Because there is little existing research on what weed species florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D controls, research trials were established to determine the spectrum of weed species that florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D controls. Greenhouse trials were also established to evaluate the effect of white clover variety on injury from herbicide. Results showed that florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D is effective in controlling several weeds such as bulbous buttercup, Canada thistle, broadleaf plantain, plumeless thistle, and common ragweed. Greenhouse trials showed that white clover variety did not influence the level of injury from herbicide applications. Seedling forages are more vulnerable to weed competition and therefore weed control around the time of planting is critical. However, seedlings are typically very sensitive to herbicides, compared to mature plants. Research trials were established to determine the effect of florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D on the establishment of forage grasses tall fescue and orchardgrass, as well as white clover. White clover was established using two commonly used methods: drilling and frost-seeding. Results from the field show that florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D is safe use around the time of tall fescue and orchardgrass establishment, as well as white clover planting with either method. Greenhouse trials were also established to determine if white clover's growth stage at the time of herbicide application influences the response. Results show that white clover is more sensitive to herbicides applied to flowering white clover compared to vegetative growth and the level of injury is dependent upon herbicide rate. Overall, our results demonstrate the utility of florpyrauxifen-benzyl + 2,4-D for forage production by controlling weed species and being safer to white clover than commonly used herbicides.

Acidification of surface waters has been recognised as the major water quality problem in the UK uplands. The adverse effects of conifer afforestation on streamwater chemistry and ecology are well documented in acid-sensitive catchments and have mainly been attributed to the enhanced deposition of atmospheric pollutants onto conifer canopies (the “scavenging effect”). Currently, international and national policies promote the expansion of native broadleaf woodland in the UK. Pollutant deposition onto broadleaf canopies is considered less than onto the more aerodynamically rough conifers, but there is concern that largescale broadleaf planting could delay the recovery of acidified waters or lead to further acidification in most sensitive areas. However, there has been limited investigation of the influence of broadleaf woodland cover on streamwater chemistry in the UK. To investigate the effect of woodland cover 14 catchments with different (0-78%) percentages of broadleaf woodland cover were identified in representative acidsensitive areas in north-western and central Scotland (Glen Arnisdale and Loch Katrine area) and northern and south-western England (Ullswater area and Devon) using spatial datasets in a GIS. Streamwater was sampled at high flow from the catchment outlets in winter and spring 2005 and 2006 and was analysed for major cations, anions and trace metals using standard methods. The number of samples ranged from two in the Glen Arnisdale catchments to 10 in the Loch Katrine area catchments which were sampled more intensively. Significant positive correlations were found between percentage broadleaf woodland cover and streamwater NO3 (rs = 0.51) and soluble Al (rs = 0.64) concentrations. The greater NO3 leaching to streamwater in the three most forested catchments (> 50%) was probably due to enhanced N deposition onto woodland canopies and nitrification by alder in the Ullswater area forested catchments. Streamwater NO3 concentrations equalled or exceeded non-marine SO4 in the above catchments indicating that NO3 was the principal excess acidifying ion in catchments with greater woodland cover. The woodland effect on streamwater chemistry in the study catchments was masked to some extent by variability in acid deposition climate and soil type composition. Seasalt inputs were found to be a more important control than woodland cover for streamwater chemistry in the maritime Glen Arnisdale catchments. A risk assessment of acid-sensitivity in the study catchments was conducted by calculating streamwater critical load exceedances using the Steady-State Water Chemistry (SSWC) and First-order Acidity Balance (FAB) models and modelled pollutant deposition for 1995-97 and 2002. Critical loads were exceeded by 0.01 to 1.74 keq H ha-1 yr-1 in two catchments which had woodland covers > 50% and in the Devon control catchment. The remaining 11 study catchments were assessed to be not at risk of acidification, probably due to significantly reduced non-marine S deposition from 1986 to 2001, but seasalt inputs to the Glen Arnisdale catchments might cause acidic streamwater episodes. Acid-sensitivity was also assessed using macroinvertebrates sampled in 11 of the study catchments and the results generally agreed with the critical load assessments. More detailed estimates of the enhancement of dry S and N deposition onto birchwoods in the Loch Katrine area catchments using calculated roughness length within FRAME showed that it posed no risk for streamwater acidification in these catchments because of the high rainfall environment. However, in acid-sensitive areas of the UK with lower rainfall and closer to major pollution sources, enhanced pollutant scavenging by broadleaf woodland canopies could pose a greater risk of acidification to freshwaters. The finding that almost all study catchments with woodland covers less than 30% are well protected from acidification suggests that this is a sensible threshold value for use in risk assessments of the effects of broadleaf woodland planting conducted within the Forests and Water Guidelines. The results of a sensitivity analysis of the Guidelines’ methodology, conducted using parameters such as numbers and timing of streamwater sampling, different runoff estimates and critical acid neutralising capacity values, showed that the Guidelines should be able to protect sensitive freshwaters from acidification in areas where broadleaf woodland is expanding.

Rapid climate change is a significant threat to the long-term persistence of native tree populations. Concern has been expressed that tree populations might fail to adapt due to rate of change, insufficient adaptive variation in tree populations and limits to dispersal. In contrast, others have contended that most tree species have high phenotypic plasticity, maintain high levels of within-population genetic variation and exhibit effective gene dispersal capability, all characteristics which should enable an adaptive response. To assess the potential adaptability of tree populations we need to understand their genetic diversity and phenotypic plasticity to build on the currently limited evidence base and guide decisions about seed sourcing for establishment of new woodlands desired to meet ambitious planting targets. Currently the seed sourcing system divides the island in four regions of similar size although it is not based on any genetic or ecological information. We discuss the suitability of this system with the insight of the data collected from native tree populations growing in experimental trials. In this thesis we study genetic diversity and phenotypic plasticity patterns in over 30 native tree populations across all Great Britain for three broadleaved species: ash (Fraxinus excelsior), rowan (Sorbus aucuparia), and silver birch (Betula pendula). To obtain these data we assessed the variation in multiple traits in several common garden experiments for each species, which were grown in contrasting environments. There is a tendency in provenance experiments to consider height as a proxy for fitness. We demonstrate that tree height is not enough to understand tree fitness and its adaptability capacity. We assessed our tree populations for growth (survival, tree height, DBH), stem form (number of forks), leaf phenology (leaf flushing and senescence) and leaf anatomical traits (leaf area, stomatal density and stomatal size).Great Britain has very distinct and heterogeneous environments likely to have given rise to adaptive differentiation. Knowing the geographical pattern of the genetic differences we can see the direction selective pressures have had on each of the traits studied, and we compare differences in patterns across the traits and species. Comparing populations growing in different environments we assessed the variation in phenotypic plasticity by trait and the direction of these plasticity. We found that tree populations across Great Britain are highly genetically variable and show genetic differences which have a geographical pattern, and that the patterns and size of the differences vary by species. Phenotypic plasticity varies across traits and interactions between genotype and environment make plasticity in some traits more unpredictable than others. We conclude that tree populations of ash, rowan and birch are well adapted to the diverse and oceanic climate of Great Britain, and that levels of genetic diversity and phenotypic plasticity provide a high capacity to respond to environmental change.

No description available.

I have decided to include into my diploma thesis the history overview of the Botanical Garden. A number of major events and pitfalls accompanied the history of the garden. The chapter about the general characteristics of the Botanical Garden of Charles University Science Faculty is also comprised Inside my thesis. There are also mentions about the exposition distinction to greenhouse and outside part and also the significant geopark which offers the additional opportunities for education. I am presenting here the offered programs of Botanical Garden for schools and the public without omitting the sample material offered to the visitors. I have also included the description of the innovative manner of interactive education of biology using the information boards and QR codes placed on these boards. Considering the didactic usage of Botanical garden I have created the worksheets which complement the excursion plan. So I have comprised the excursion planning, creation of worksheets, assembling the questions and the pitfalls during their creation in the next chapters. Afterwards I have described the excursion execution itself, its evaluation and the possible modifications of worksheets. The next chapters deal with the questionnaire designed for teachers of biology. I have concentrated in my teaching...

Sett över hela landet växer ädellövskog endast på en procent av den produktiva skogsmarken. I det studerade området Dalsland utgörs virkesförrådet uppskattningsvis av tre procent ädla lövträd. Dess förekomst är därför att betrakta som relativt sällsynt. Denna studie hade för avsikt att intervjua markägare som har valt att nyetablera med ädellövskog och genom det förstå vad det är som bidragit till att de föryngrat med dessa trädslag. Undersökningen utfördes genom att sex individer som nyetablerat med ädellövskog intervjuades. Resultatet sammanställdes därefter genom att se på gruppen som en helhet och lyfta fram samtliga påverkande faktorer. Utifrån resultatet kunde 13 faktorer identifieras som bidragande och en förståelse kring dem redogöras för.  Det kan konstateras att ett flertal faktorer påverkat markägarna i valet att plantera ädellövskog.

Devido às questões de planejamento e operações agrícolas, é utilizado cada vez mais, no setor produtivo da cana-de-açúcar, o controle químico de plantas daninhas durante o período seco do ano, uma vez que mesmo em menores densidades populacionais, podem prejudicar o desenvolvimento da cultura. Neste sentido, este trabalho foi desenvolvido com o objetivo de se avaliar a eficácia de herbicidas, em condição de pré-emergência e períodos de restrição hídrica, para o controle das principais espécies de plantas daninhas presentes nos canaviais. Para tanto, dois experimentos foram desenvolvidos em campo, sendo um em fazenda de produção comercial, próxima a Usina São João, no município de ArarasSP; e outro na Estação Experimental Agrícola (EEA) da DuPont do Brasil S/A, no município de PaulíniaSP, em que, sob condições controladas, estudou-se a atividade residual dos herbicidas quando submetidos a diferentes períodos de restrição hídrica. Em complementação, outro trabalho foi conduzido em casa-de-vegetação, também em Paulínia, a fim de se verificar a interação dos herbicidas com a palha da cultura e submetidos a diferentes períodos de restrição hídrica. Os herbicidas diuron+hexazinone+sulfometuron-methyl, isoxaflutole, imazapic e clomazone+hexazinone foram avaliados nas doses (1206+340+29 e 1386,9+391+33,35; 133; 165 e 1000+250 g.ha-1) para os ensaios conduzidos na EEA e (1085+306+26,1 e 1206+340+29; 150; 126 e 920+230 g.ha-1) para o experimento conduzido na Usina. As espécies de plantas daninhas avaliadas foram: Ipomoea triloba L., Brachiaria decumbens Stapf. e Euphorbia heterophylla L. para os experimentos no campo, e estas, mais Panicum maximum L. para o experimento conduzido em casa-de-vegetação. No campo, o herbicida diuron+hexazinone+sulfometuron-methyl mostrou-se eficaz para controle das espécies avaliadas, em ambas as doses, e pouco sensível aos períodos de restrição hídrica, sendo que para B. decumbens a maior dose foi mais eficaz. Em casa-de-vegetação, foi observada excelente eficácia, sem influência dos períodos de restrição hídrica, em ambas as doses, para leiteiro e capim-braquiária e verificou-se que a maior dose desse herbicida foi mais eficaz, nos maiores períodos de restrição hídrica, para P. maximum e I. triloba. Para isoxaflutole apenas o controle de B. decumbens deu-se de maneira satisfatória para as condições de campo, e para o experimento em casa-de-vegetação, o controle das espécies gramíneas foi eficaz apenas para os menores períodos de restrição hídrica, sendo para as dicotiledôneas, insatisfatório. Os períodos de restrição hídrica e a atividade residual influenciaram a eficácia de imazapic nos diferentes experimentos, à exceção de I. triloba para os ensaios a campo e B. decumbens na ausência de restrição hídrica sobre a palha. O controle do leiteiro por clomazone+hexazinone sofreu influência dos períodos de restrição hídrica e apresentou queda na atividade residual ao longo das avaliações, sendo que o herbicida mostrou bons níveis de controle para I. triloba e B. decumbens nos ensaios de campo, independente do período de restrição hídrica. Já para o ensaio de casa-de-vegetação, ocorreu influência do período de restrição hídrica e atividade residual. / Due to concerns related to planning and agricultural practices in sugarcane production, the chemical control of weeds during dry seasons has become a common practice. Even though the weed density is lower during this season it may still cause a significant reduction in cane yield. Therefore, this study aimed at evaluating the efficacy of herbicides applied at pre-emergence when submitted to different drought periods, for the control of the major weed flora commonly found in sugarcane plantations. To achieve this goal two field experiments were carried out: one experiment in a commercial field, near the São João Mill, located in the Araras County, in São Paulo State, Brazil; a second experiment at the Paulínia Experimental Station (EEA), from Dupont do Brasil S/A, in the County of Paulínia, São Paulo, Brazil, where the residual activity of the herbicides was studied under controlled conditions. As a complement, a greenhouse study was also conducted at EEA in order to verify the interaction of the respective herbicides with sugarcane straws and the drought periods. The herbicides diuron + hexazinone + sulfometuron-methyl, isoxaflutole, imazapic and clomazone + hexazinone were evaluated in the following doses: (1206+340+29 and 1386.9+391+33.35+133; 165 and 1000+250 g.ha-1) for the experiments conducted at EEA and (1085+306+26.1 and 1206+340+29; 150; 126 and 920+230 g.ha-1) for the experiment conducted at the mill. The weed flora evaluated was: Ipomoea triloba L., Brachiaria decumbens Stapf. and E. heterophylla L. for the field experiments. In addition to these weeds, for the greenhouse experiment, Panicum maximum L. was also evaluated. In the field, the herbicide diuron+hexazinone+sulfometuron-methyl was effective for the control of the evaluated species, at both doses, and its activity was not significantly affected by the drought periods, with the exception of B. decumbens, for which, the higher dose was more effective; in the greenhouse tests, both doses of this herbicide showed an excellent control of E. heterophylla and B. decumbens without influence of the drought periods. Furthermore, the control of P. maximum and I. triloba in the extended periods of drought was more effective when the higher dose was used. With the exception of B. decumbens, isoxaflutole was not effective for the control of the tested weed species in both field and greenhouse. In addition, the control of the grasses species was only effective when shorter drought periods were applied and not effective for all tested broad leaves. The residual activity of imazapic was affected by the drought periods in different experiments, except for I. triloba in the field experiments and B. decumbens in the absence of drought periods when applied upon straw cover. The control of E. heterophylla by clomazone+hexazinone was influenced by the drought periods and showed a decrease in the residual activity along with the evaluations. This herbicide was effective in the field for the control of I. triloba and B. decumbens independently of the drought periods. However, in the greenhouse experiment, the drought periods significantly affect its performance and residual activity.

Devido às questões de planejamento e operações agrícolas, é utilizado cada vez mais, no setor produtivo da cana-de-açúcar, o controle químico de plantas daninhas durante o período seco do ano, uma vez que mesmo em menores densidades populacionais, podem prejudicar o desenvolvimento da cultura. Neste sentido, este trabalho foi desenvolvido com o objetivo de se avaliar a eficácia de herbicidas, em condição de pré-emergência e períodos de restrição hídrica, para o controle das principais espécies de plantas daninhas presentes nos canaviais. Para tanto, dois experimentos foram desenvolvidos em campo, sendo um em fazenda de produção comercial, próxima a Usina São João, no município de ArarasSP; e outro na Estação Experimental Agrícola (EEA) da DuPont do Brasil S/A, no município de PaulíniaSP, em que, sob condições controladas, estudou-se a atividade residual dos herbicidas quando submetidos a diferentes períodos de restrição hídrica. Em complementação, outro trabalho foi conduzido em casa-de-vegetação, também em Paulínia, a fim de se verificar a interação dos herbicidas com a palha da cultura e submetidos a diferentes períodos de restrição hídrica. Os herbicidas diuron+hexazinone+sulfometuron-methyl, isoxaflutole, imazapic e clomazone+hexazinone foram avaliados nas doses (1206+340+29 e 1386,9+391+33,35; 133; 165 e 1000+250 g.ha-1) para os ensaios conduzidos na EEA e (1085+306+26,1 e 1206+340+29; 150; 126 e 920+230 g.ha-1) para o experimento conduzido na Usina. As espécies de plantas daninhas avaliadas foram: Ipomoea triloba L., Brachiaria decumbens Stapf. e Euphorbia heterophylla L. para os experimentos no campo, e estas, mais Panicum maximum L. para o experimento conduzido em casa-de-vegetação. No campo, o herbicida diuron+hexazinone+sulfometuron-methyl mostrou-se eficaz para controle das espécies avaliadas, em ambas as doses, e pouco sensível aos períodos de restrição hídrica, sendo que para B. decumbens a maior dose foi mais eficaz. Em casa-de-vegetação, foi observada excelente eficácia, sem influência dos períodos de restrição hídrica, em ambas as doses, para leiteiro e capim-braquiária e verificou-se que a maior dose desse herbicida foi mais eficaz, nos maiores períodos de restrição hídrica, para P. maximum e I. triloba. Para isoxaflutole apenas o controle de B. decumbens deu-se de maneira satisfatória para as condições de campo, e para o experimento em casa-de-vegetação, o controle das espécies gramíneas foi eficaz apenas para os menores períodos de restrição hídrica, sendo para as dicotiledôneas, insatisfatório. Os períodos de restrição hídrica e a atividade residual influenciaram a eficácia de imazapic nos diferentes experimentos, à exceção de I. triloba para os ensaios a campo e B. decumbens na ausência de restrição hídrica sobre a palha. O controle do leiteiro por clomazone+hexazinone sofreu influência dos períodos de restrição hídrica e apresentou queda na atividade residual ao longo das avaliações, sendo que o herbicida mostrou bons níveis de controle para I. triloba e B. decumbens nos ensaios de campo, independente do período de restrição hídrica. Já para o ensaio de casa-de-vegetação, ocorreu influência do período de restrição hídrica e atividade residual. / Due to concerns related to planning and agricultural practices in sugarcane production, the chemical control of weeds during dry seasons has become a common practice. Even though the weed density is lower during this season it may still cause a significant reduction in cane yield. Therefore, this study aimed at evaluating the efficacy of herbicides applied at pre-emergence when submitted to different drought periods, for the control of the major weed flora commonly found in sugarcane plantations. To achieve this goal two field experiments were carried out: one experiment in a commercial field, near the São João Mill, located in the Araras County, in São Paulo State, Brazil; a second experiment at the Paulínia Experimental Station (EEA), from Dupont do Brasil S/A, in the County of Paulínia, São Paulo, Brazil, where the residual activity of the herbicides was studied under controlled conditions. As a complement, a greenhouse study was also conducted at EEA in order to verify the interaction of the respective herbicides with sugarcane straws and the drought periods. The herbicides diuron + hexazinone + sulfometuron-methyl, isoxaflutole, imazapic and clomazone + hexazinone were evaluated in the following doses: (1206+340+29 and 1386.9+391+33.35+133; 165 and 1000+250 g.ha-1) for the experiments conducted at EEA and (1085+306+26.1 and 1206+340+29; 150; 126 and 920+230 g.ha-1) for the experiment conducted at the mill. The weed flora evaluated was: Ipomoea triloba L., Brachiaria decumbens Stapf. and E. heterophylla L. for the field experiments. In addition to these weeds, for the greenhouse experiment, Panicum maximum L. was also evaluated. In the field, the herbicide diuron+hexazinone+sulfometuron-methyl was effective for the control of the evaluated species, at both doses, and its activity was not significantly affected by the drought periods, with the exception of B. decumbens, for which, the higher dose was more effective; in the greenhouse tests, both doses of this herbicide showed an excellent control of E. heterophylla and B. decumbens without influence of the drought periods. Furthermore, the control of P. maximum and I. triloba in the extended periods of drought was more effective when the higher dose was used. With the exception of B. decumbens, isoxaflutole was not effective for the control of the tested weed species in both field and greenhouse. In addition, the control of the grasses species was only effective when shorter drought periods were applied and not effective for all tested broad leaves. The residual activity of imazapic was affected by the drought periods in different experiments, except for I. triloba in the field experiments and B. decumbens in the absence of drought periods when applied upon straw cover. The control of E. heterophylla by clomazone+hexazinone was influenced by the drought periods and showed a decrease in the residual activity along with the evaluations. This herbicide was effective in the field for the control of I. triloba and B. decumbens independently of the drought periods. However, in the greenhouse experiment, the drought periods significantly affect its performance and residual activity.

Sammanfattning   Björk kan ge ett bra virke och med undantag för sämre fukttålighet finns endast formella restriktioner i virkets användning i relation till tall och gran. Trots detta och trots att det finns gott om björkråvara i landet är den sågade och använda björkvolymen påfallande liten. Björken utgör därför en underskattad skoglig och industriell resurs vars utnyttjande skulle kunna öka kraftigt.   Björken har varit ett lågprioriterat virke vilket sannolikt på grund av dålig skötsel påverkat kvalitén på våra nuvarande björkskogar och plantmaterialet. Det har också lett till att vi saknar tradition i vid mening att arbeta med björken. Forskning och utbildning fokuserar på barrvirke varför lövets, och då särskilt björkens möjligheter inte tillvaratas.   Björken kräver andra skötselmetoder än barrträden men utnyttjas dessa finns förutsättningar att skapa bra produktionsskogar både med avseende på volym och kvalitet. Mer forskning behövs dock i frågan om betesskador och hur dessa kan reduceras. Bra björktimmer kan pris- och lönsamhetsmässigt vara intressantare för skogsägaren än motsvarande barrtimmer. Dessa kunskaper måste nå ut till skogsägarna för att de skall förstå att det finns attraktiva alternativ till att slentrianmässigt anlägga nya tall- eller granskogar efter en föryngringsavverkning. Utöver det goda arbetet som Skogsstyrelsen gör med allmänna skötselråd gällande björkskogen borde de mer aktivt arbeta med skogsägarna för att stimulera till ett mer kommersiellt utnyttjande av björken. Denna uppmaning gäller även andra berörda parter vilket inkluderar skogsägarens alla rådgivare.   Den helt dominerande volymen av avverkad björk går i dagsläget till massabruken. Det finns flera skäl till detta. Ett kan vara att kvaliteten inte alltid svarar mot sågverkens krav men andra skäl är hanterings- och logistikproblem med att hantera små volymer sågtimmer och bristande kunskaper både hos skördarföraren och hos skogsägaren. Hade skogsägaren haft de goda förtjänstmöjligheterna på björktimmer klar för sig vid avverkningen hade han kunnat ge noggrannare instruktioner om hur björkvirket skulle hanteras.   Sågverken som hanterar björk är få och relativt små. För en verklig volymproduktion av björktimmer behövs en resurs- och teknikutbyggnad. Vissa satsningar görs men mer behövs. Dessa satsningar måste göras utifrån ett verkligt marknadsmässigt perspektiv. Vem skall svara för nödvändiga investeringar? Var finns industrin, riskkapitalisterna och investerarna som är beredda att satsa på en fabrik för svensk björkplywood eller byggsystem som inkluderar björk? Lönsamheten är inget att skryta med och branschen utövar ingen stor lockelse för nya entreprenörer. Även här kommer marknadsaspekterna in. Det behövs industriell efterfrågan på stora volymer sågad björk för att konstituera en verklig marknad. För att skapa denna räcker det inte med en satsning på snickeriindustrin utan björk måste även i Sverige användas som ett naturligt virke i byggsammanhang. Boverket har här en nyckelroll och måste anpassa svenska normer till motsvarande europeiska så att det blir möjligt att interiört bygga också med björk. Vem driver den frågan? Vem stimulerar arkitekter och byggnadskonstruktörer till att bygga med björk? På samma sätt som det sätts upp priser för bästa trähus kunde det möjligen också skapas ett pris för bästa anläggning byggd i björk. Hur kan man skapa intresse hos en kommun, ett företag eller organisation att genomföra ett profilbygge i björk? Sveriges Träbyggnadskansli är en lämplig mottagare av detta budskap men det borde finnas fler.   I takt med att skogens miljömål accentueras blir lövskogen än viktigare. Lika viktigt är då att alla parter samverkar för att skogsägaren som sköter sin lövskog på ett bra sätt skall få avsättning för sitt virke till acceptabla villkor. Skogsstyrelsen måste också ha en positiv syn på lövavverkningen och inte av miljöskäl i en framtid stoppa denna när den blir aktuell. Blotta misstanken hos skogsägaren att så kan bli fallet kommer att leda till ett minskat intresse för lövskogen.   Lövträ är inget homogent begrepp och egenskaperna skiljer sig märkbart mellan t.ex. al, alm, ask, lönn å ena sidan och björk å den andra. Det finns ingen anledning att i detta sammanhang tala om björk i allmänna ordalag som ett lövträd utan björk är björk och inget annat och skall så behandlas.   Sammanfattningsvis har vi gott om björk vars virke kan användas på mångahanda sätt. Att så inte sker kan inte förklaras av någon enstaka faktor. För att få en ändring till stånd krävs i första hand ett renodlat marknadsmässigt tänkesätt med ökad information och kunskap i alla led. Det talas om att skogsnäringen måste marknadsorientera sig i sin verksamhet. Detta gäller hela kedjan från skogsägaren till slutkonsumenten av skogsprodukten. / Summary in English   Sweden is a forest country with a standing wood balance of more than 3 000 million m3sk. Pine and spruce are dominating species but there is also a wood balance of some 420 million m3sk of birch. Birch is offering excellent timber properties and is well matching both pine and spruce with the exception of its sensitivity to moisture. Despite of this, quite small quantities of birch timber are being used in Sweden. Most birch wood being cut is used for the production of paper and pulp (95%). Although the birch tree is an old species in Sweden it was during the 2000th century until the end of the 1970s treated as a weed and was struggled with by means of herbicides. Subsequently Sweden lost knowledge and experience in how to deal with this wood which in turn leads to a poor quality of now existing clumps of birch trees. Compared to coniferous trees little research has been done of broadleaf trees but it’s anyhow known that the clearing and thinning of birch trees have to be stricter than that of softwood. Birch trees have an interesting potential with a shorter production cycle than pine and spruce. Used for timber the yield for the forest owner could be quite interesting. Broadleaf trees are also playing an important role to improve the overall environment.   To increase the use of birch wood more information about this specific timber has to be spread to all parties concerned. That involves owners of forest land, silviculture, sawmills, industry and distributors. Activities along the chain of actors have to be market oriented and include economic incentives for parties concerned. To be able to increase the volume of birch timber used new areas of deployment have to be found outside the traditional production of furniture etc. An interesting area is then the building industry.