The objective of this thesis was to determine the potential impact on groundwater quality as a result of the release of leachate from livestock mortality burial for three species of livestock: swine, bovine and poultry. Specific objectives were to:<p> 1.Characterize the chemical composition of leachate in livestock mortality burial pits for three species: bovine, swine and poultry; and<p> 2.Evaluate the potential environmental impact of livestock burial through groundwater transport modelling.<p> A two part program was followed to achieve these objectives. The first portion involved construction of lined burial pits complete with leachate collection systems. Poultry (1300kg), swine (5900kg) and bovine (9750kg) carcasses were each placed in separate pits and the pits covered with plastic liner material and then approximately one meter of earthen cover. The pits were sampled for leachate chemical analysis at 2 weeks, 1 month, 2 months, 4 months, 8 months, 14 months and 25 months post burial. The second portion involved using the chemical analysis results from first portion and two groundwater modeling software packages (CTRAN and PHREEQC) to characterize the leachate and evaluate the potential this material could have on groundwater resources adjacent to burial pits.<p> The results indicated that livestock mortality leachate contains, on average, after two years of decomposition, concentrations of 12,600 mg/L of ammonium-N, 34,600 mg/L alkalinity (as bicarbonate), 2,600 mg/L chloride, 3,600 mg/L sulphate, 2,300 mg/L potassium, 1,800 mg/L sodium, 1,500 mg/L phosphorus along with relative lesser amounts of iron, calcium and magnesium. Maximum values for the major ions were up to 50% higher than the average in some instances. The pH of the leachate was near neutral. In comparison to earthen manure storages and landfills, the strength of the leachate was 2-4 times higher.<p> To properly characterize the leachate chemistry, speciation of the mortality leachate was performed using PHREEQC. This speciation provided evidence of phosphate compounds precipitating from solution, as well as significant amounts of phosphoric acids (0.03 mol/L). Relatively high concentrations of ammonium sulphate also formed and due to the negative charge, allow for potentially 300 mg-N/L to transport conservatively. In comparison to naturally occurring groundwater, activities of bicarbonate, sulphates, phosphates and other minerals were many orders of magnitude higher than concentrations present in groundwater.<p> Preliminary simulations were created with two software packages, Geo-Slope CTRAN and PHREEQC to simulate transport of the leachate for three different soil conditions. The Geo-Slope model models a conservative contaminant, while the PHREEQC model involves geochemical speciation and contaminant transport including ion exchange occurring along the pathway. Transport through a low permeable soil (K=1 x 10-10 m/s) was dominated by diffusion allowing unattenuated leachate to transport a distance of approximately three meters in 50 years. The moderately permeable soil situation (K=1 x 10-9 m/s) produced a transport depth of six meters with an approximate concentration of the tracer thirty to forty percent of initial concentration in 50 years. In a highly permeable soil (K=1 x 10-8 m/s), transport reached a depth of 10 meters in 10 years with approximately forty percent of initial concentration. The PHREEQC transport model demonstrated a highly concentrated calcium and magnesium plume forming in front of the ammonium plume suggesting ion exchange and attenuation of ammonium.<p> In the occurrence of a mass mortality event, regulators in Canada have decided to employ a trench burial system. Trenches could be created using on-the-farm equipment such as backhoes to obtain approximate trench dimensions of 2 m wide and 4 m deep. To assess the impact of multiple trenches and their appropriate spacing, models were created with Geo-Slope CTRAN to evaluate the effects on trench spacing. It was determined through these models that a minimum 10 m separation distance would provide a potential contaminant plume maximum soil contact and no trench-to-trench impact.<p> To further evaluate the potential impact of livestock burial leachate, mass loading into an aquifer was evaluated for a moderately permeable soil (K=1 x 10-9 m/s) for a mass mortality event in a 10,000 head feedlot. Disposal consisted of ten 200 m trenches with a 10 m separation distance. Disposal covered 2.2 hectares and provided a mass loading of ammonium to an aquifer 10 m below of 950 kg/year after 50 years and increasing from 50 years until the peak concentration of the plume reached the aquifer. At this loading rate, nitrogen concentrations exceed drinking water standards 10-15 times.

The aim of this study is to analyze the price setting in the South African coffin industry which is affected by the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Consumer behavior and decision making, producer and retailer response, as well as the overall effects that this industry may have within the realm of the South African economy is analyzed. The central focus however, is the price determination governing the supply and demand relationship, and the influence that this relationship has on the market mechanism, which is important in regulating the functioning of the South Africa coffin industry. Chapter One introduces the problem statement by highlighting the purpose of the study in light of the effects of HIV/AIDS. The link between the coffin industry and the economy is the increase in mortality rates caused by HIV/AIDS. Sub-Sahara is the worst affected global region, and within South Africa over four million people have been affected by the pandemic. The effects on the economy can be observed on several fronts for example, the weakening of South Africa’s social structure, increasing costs to the state by putting pressure on the limited medical facilities and other social institutions, reducing the skill base, reducing national economic growth rates, etc. Due to the high levels of unemployment experienced in South Africa, several problems become relevant, especially in rural areas. Such problems can be highlighted in terms of an increase in the financial burden placed on those paying for burials. This is also extended to those organizations supplying financial aid to help cover the costs, such as societies and funeral policies. Due to the low levels of income experienced by many in urban centers, this puts a great deal of pressure on government to assist in the burial of those whom are not in a position to afford the funeral costs. Due to the upward pressure on demand for coffins, prices for coffins may increase, which will be transferred onto the rural population, which characteristically experience a greater degree of low incomes, putting additional financial pressure on these people. The increased rate of burials increase the demand on limited burial space, causing costs to rise, putting additional pressure on household savings. This becomes increasingly important, as the levels of household savings in South Africa are relatively low. Chapter Two focuses on the theoretical aspects of price determination. Price setting behavior is not only a method of profit maximization, but is also an extension of marketing strategies used to generate and establish a larger share of any target market. This chapter is based on a literary survey and applies a theoretical approach to price determination, analyzing and comparing market structures. Pricing strategies, nominal and real price rigidities and modern pricing methodologies under the influence of Internet and global markets are explored. Chapter Three takes a close anthropological review of traditional South African cultures and religions, and illustrates how these traditional beliefs and religions influence the decision making of the consumer and the undertaker. Within the context of these cultural perspectives, the issue of cremation as an alternative to the burial is explored. An analysis of the consumer demand is achieved by using the data collected for the consumer and the undertaker surveys. The costs and the consumer decision making regarding burial practices and the financing thereof is highlighted. Burial policies and funeral societies are discussed, and the overall effect that they have on consumer spending patterns, the misallocation of resources as well as the negative tradeoff effects of this misallocation has on the employer, the household, the government and the overall economy. The financing of funerals is also an important issue as the high rates of unemployment and the huge social demands that it places on consumers are forcing the majority to search for funding from other sectors of the economy that already feels the strain of a global slowdown. Economically, this chapter challenges the traditional customs and the redirection of scarce resources that are been greatly misallocated into inappropriate sectors. Chapter Four investigates the influence of HIV/AIDS on the economy, and the influence that HIV/AIDS has on the South African coffin industry. This chapter highlights the spread of the HIV/AIDS virus and the influence that this virus has on society. The role woman play in the South African economy, and the effect of HIV/AIDS on the labor force. The discussion then focuses on HIV/AIDS and the workings of the coffin industry and the near perfectly competitive market structure that functions within the South African coffin industry. Pricing strategies highlighting the role of religion, HIV/AIDS and income are considered and the role of the undertaker in society. The research was predominantly based on the information generated in the undertaker and the consumer surveys as well as a literary survey. However, the undertaker does not operate independently. There are many related industries, which are discussed, and the relationship between them is highlighted. The growth of the complementary industries, similarly, must not be underestimated, as the coffin industry provides them with a springboard from which they may enter the market. Chapter Five constructs a model to show how the influence of HIV/AIDS affects the price setting behavior of coffins. Thereafter, the model introduces the concept of competition, showing how the growing rate of competition, in conjunction with HIV/AIDS, is a more suitable model in determining the influence on price setting behavior. The model is based on the Ordinary Leased Squared (OLS) method, and the model is tested on economic a priori, Statistical evaluation and econometric tests, for example, Autocorrelation, Heteroscedasticity and Multicollinearity. Using Theils Inequality Coefficient, the model is proven sound for forecasting purposes. The combination of HIV/AIDS and competition using the SIC and AIC test proves that this combination is a better-forecast model than if HIV/AIDS was used as a determinant on its own. In chapter Six, the construction, distribution and analysis of the Consumer and the Undertaker surveys are discussed. For the purpose of the study, it became obvious that within the South African coffin industry, there is a gap between available literature on the industry and what was required for the compellation of this research. A detailed discussion on the methodology, purpose, the target sample, limitations and format of the surveys is discussed. The data collected proved very useful on two fronts: Firstly it provided detailed information that was required in order to complete the study. Secondly, the data collected introduced new questions and opened new doors to further investigation. The data provided sufficient information to show the relationship between the economy and the coffin industry. In chapter Seven, the main findings of the study are highlighted by the overwhelming influence of HIV/AIDS which has affected both the nature of the market, as well as price setting behavior. However, it has led to a large degree to the misallocation of resources, that are required in other spheres of the economy. The motivation behind funeral policies is an area of concern, and requires additional research into the social and economic influence of such structures. The influence of the rapid growth of competition has a large role to play in the coffin industry. Furthermore, the traditional beliefs of the consumer need to be protected and the role of the undertaker in this regard is a major concern. The final chapter highlights areas of further research, makes note of shortcomings in the available literature and highlights the role of policy makers with respect to the South African coffin industry.

Historical accounts of mortuary display during the 19th-century and evidence from archaeological investigations at historic cemeteries can contribute substantially to our understanding of related chronological and social-status issues. An inadequate understanding of mortuary practice in Texas circa 1821 to 1870 frustrates assessment of site chronology and status-related interpretations. While there are numerous studies of individual cemeteries, there is, as of yet, no synthesis of historical and archaeological data pertaining to mortuary practices in early Texas. In response to this deficiency, this thesis provides a synthesis of mortuary practices and the availability of related paraphernalia in Texas circa 1821-1870. Data from numerous cemeteries are compiled to establish a chronology for mortuary practices and to develop a seriation of select burial furnishings as an aid in assessing status-related variation in mortuary display. Results of the study, as gleaned from archival and archaeological data, indicate that mortuary display in mid-19th-century Texas is not so much a proxy of wealth, as it is a measure of popular cultural trends and economic contexts. These findings are used to reassess cemetery chronologies and status indices, including several interments at Matagorda Cemetery (1835-present), which serve as case studies.

Thesis (M. Soc. Sc.)--University of Hong Kong, 1986.

Historical accounts of mortuary display during the 19th-century and evidence from archaeological investigations at historic cemeteries can contribute substantially to our understanding of related chronological and social-status issues. An inadequate understanding of mortuary practice in Texas circa 1821 to 1870 frustrates assessment of site chronology and status-related interpretations. While there are numerous studies of individual cemeteries, there is, as of yet, no synthesis of historical and archaeological data pertaining to mortuary practices in early Texas. In response to this deficiency, this thesis provides a synthesis of mortuary practices and the availability of related paraphernalia in Texas circa 1821-1870. Data from numerous cemeteries are compiled to establish a chronology for mortuary practices and to develop a seriation of select burial furnishings as an aid in assessing status-related variation in mortuary display. Results of the study, as gleaned from archival and archaeological data, indicate that mortuary display in mid-19th-century Texas is not so much a proxy of wealth, as it is a measure of popular cultural trends and economic contexts. These findings are used to reassess cemetery chronologies and status indices, including several interments at Matagorda Cemetery (1835-present), which serve as case studies.

Thesis (M.A.)--University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 79-83). / xi, 83 leaves, bound 29 cm

Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)--University of Hong Kong, 1986. / Also available in print.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Guo li Zheng zhi da xue, 1988. / Cover title. Includes bibliographical references.

This thesis brings together all that is currently known of early medieval grave reopening in northern and western Europe. It investigates in detail an intensive outbreak of grave-robbery in 6th-7th century Kent. This is closely related to the same phenomenon in Merovingia: an example of the import of not only material goods but also a distinctive cultural practice. Limited numbers of similar robbing episodes, affecting a much smaller proportion of graves in each cemetery, are also identified elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon England. Although the phenomenon of grave-robbery is well-attested in Merovingia, this research is the first study at a regional level. The aim is to advance the debate about early medieval robbery from general discussion of interpretative possibilities to evaluation of specific models and their compatibility with the archaeological evidence. The conclusions have significant implications for the interpretation of grave-robbery across early medieval Europe. In Kent robbing is at a level that must be considered in any discussion of cemetery evidence. The poor publication record has inhibited recognition and analysis of robbing in the county. However, by using extensive archive material, this thesis has shown that the practice of ransacking graves was on a similar scale in East Kent as in Merovingia. This research identifies over 200 reopened graves across Kent, with at least 15 sites affected. At the most intensely robbed sites, an average of over 20% of burials were disturbed. Robbing is likely to have had a significant impact on artefact finds, especially from the late 6th century onwards. Grave-robbery opens a window onto the wider meanings and values of grave-good types within the early medieval period. The analysis in this thesis demonstrates that the main motive for reopening was the removal of grave goods. However, straightforward personal enrichment was not the goal. A deliberate, consistent selection of certain grave-good types were taken from burials, while other apparently covetable possessions were left behind. The desired grave-goods were removed even when in an unusable condition. It is argued that the selection of goods for removal was related to their symbolic roles in the initial burial rite. Their taking was intended to harm living descendants by damaging the prestige and strength of the dead. In addition to the robbed graves, there is a small number of graves spread across the sites which were reopened for bodily mutilation or rearrangement of skeletal parts. These closely resemble the better known deviant burial rites which were applied to certain corpses at the time of initial burial and are interpreted as a reaction to fear of revenants. In modern Britain burial is a finite and final process: the definitive disposal of a dead body. The archaeological and ethnographic records contain many examples of more complex series of events to enable the dead to move on from the living. The material remains of such processes can be seen in revisited and reopened graves, and in myriad manipulations of human bodies. This case study is a detailed, contextualised investigation of the after-history of burial monuments focused on the early Middle Ages.

No / Extant literature contains a number of specific case studies on differential decomposition involving adipocere formation or desiccation, but few describe the co-occurrence of these features within a temperate climate. The case of a 65-year-old male, partially buried in a shallow grave for 7 months, is presented in which the soft tissues of the body were outwardly well preserved. The right leg was desiccated, some parts of the body were covered with adipocere (head, neck, right shoulder, upper torso and left leg) and other parts could be classified as in the early stages of decomposition. In this study the taphonomic variables resulting in differential decomposition with desiccation and adipocere formation are discussed.