The majority of research in political branding has tended to adopt a measurable, singular, quantitative approach (French and Smith 2010; Schneider 2004). Furthermore research in this area deserves more attention (Peng and Hack 2009; Rawson 2007; Schneider 2004; Smith 2009; Van Ham 2001; White and de Chernatony 2002). This thesis fulfils an identified gap in the body of knowledge in that there is no in-depth understanding of a political brand from an internal and external orientation. Ultimately this thesis considers the question how can we understand the complexity of the UK Conservative Party brand from an internal and external perspective under the leadership of David Cameron? To answer this question this study explores the ‘brand identity’ and ‘brand image’ of the UK Conservative Party and considers the transfer potential (Schneider 2004) of Kapferer’s (2008) brand identity prism and Bosch’s et al. (2006) brand image framework. Thirty in-depth interviews with internal stakeholders of the UK Conservative Party along with eight focus group discussions with external stakeholders aged 18-24 years were conducted prior the 2010 UK General Election. The transcribed in-depth interviews and focus groups discussions were thematically analysed using a two-staged process based on the work of Butler-Kisber (2010). Just as Norton (1996) suggested that the UK Conservative Party is complex, this research demonstrates that the political brand is equally complex. This research highlights the lack of internal coherency to the UK Conservative Party ‘brand identity’. Furthermore the UK Conservative Party ‘brand image’ is ambiguous and remains associated with previously held perceptions. In addition, this research indicated some disparity between the concepts of brand identity and brand image. Nevertheless this study provided deep insight and highlighted some detoxification of the ‘Tory brand’. Finally, this research uncovered some key problems that still face the UK Conservative Party and that they focus upon the paradox of a ‘broad church’ whilst factional in nature.

The increasingly complex, dynamic and pluralistic nature of the policing and community safety environment is presenting a significant challenge to the problem structuring and solving approaches traditionally used by managers in this sector. In light of deficiencies of traditional approaches, developments in the field of systems thinking have sought to tackle problem situations more holistically, employing a variety of systems approaches in combination to improve success in problem situations of greater plurality and complexity. In particular, Critical Systems Thinking (CST) has evolved as a theory and philosophy to support multi-methodology problem solving. This action research focuses on the actual and potential use of systems approaches in the policing and community safety environment. The opportunity to address prevailing real-life problems through a series of practical systems interventions within a large UK police organisation, producing learning for both practitioners in the sector and for systems thinking more widely is the foundation upon which this action research study is justified and a number of salient findings have emerged that are of relevance to both communities. This action research has recognised the opportunity to improve the impact of CST through the wider devolution of appropriate capability. A recursive model to reflect upon the deployment of approaches appears to provide a coherent framework for recognising the concurrent existence of CST at different ‘application’ levels and for informing a deeper understanding of the role of the facilitator of CST; be that a specialist, an organisational leader or a member of the workforce involved in change. A particular value is seen in enhancing such development through the employment of culturally acceptable approaches, including the concept of policing problem archetypes that provide a platform for demonstrating the practical value of a diverse range of systems approaches. The research has identified value in the facilitator gaining and sustaining an appreciation of the landscape of diversity within problem situations and identifying centres of gravity in terms of defining features. It has also emphasised the validity and practical value of employing multi-methodology in parallel in both modes 1 and 2 in problem situations involving a variety of stakeholders that reflect multiple paradigm diversity. As the problem situations encountered in the policing and community safety sector increasingly involve multiple agencies, recognition of an improved capability for deploying such systems thinking is of particular relevance, such as through participative large group processes. An extensive exploration of the role of the facilitator of CST through the employment of a complexity lens has added clarity to the nature of that role within typically wicked problem situations. Extending the concept of the effective interventionist beyond the boundaries of the facilitator’s direct influence and recognising the variety of capability that the facilitator might require to secure improvement in diverse client systems. The research has also resulted in the development of a heuristic to enhance understanding of the role of the facilitator of CST. This formula identifies the variables that the facilitator of CST might need to handle in order to secure improvement in pursuance of an objective function for optimisation comprising a range of relevant measures associated with a variety of paradigms, subject to the incremental fulfilment of the condition for change reflected in the ‘Beckhard’ change formula.

Retirement systems are generally classified into two categories, namely, defined benefit (DB) and defined contribution (DC) plans. These plans differ in the method used to determine the benefits, or in the distribution of risk. While reducing the provision of the DB plan and replacing the DB plan with the DC plan are the contemporary trends world-wide, DB and DC plans still constitute the two major types of retirement schemes. Consequently, to choose between the two options is among the decisions faced by individuals and organisations. Alternatively, an individual may also voluntarily set up his or her own supplementary retirement plans through savings. Malaysia, like many other developing countries, continues to face the problem of an ageing population which has become increasingly important to tackle. Consequently, employers, the government and employees need to make tough decisions to formulate the best retirement plan that can satisfy and meet the needs of the Malaysian workforce. Since there has been no study that has focused on the choice between the DB and DC retirement plans and the satisfaction of the workforce with the existing retirement plans in Malaysia, this is a gap that this research attempts to fill. Moreover, individual employees’ retirement decisions and choice patterns have not been extensively investigated despite the fact that their inputs are vital due to the greater responsibility of employees to set up their own retirement plans in the future. This research aims to study the factors predictors) that influence the type of retirement plans chosen by Malaysian public universities’ employees guided by the Bounded-Rationality-Theory. The factors that influence and help predict the choice of retirement plans include demographic-features, knowledge level, voluntary savings perceptions, extension of working years beyond retirement, health status, peer effects, retirement income sources, preferences for certain plan features, mobility, job aspects and risk-benefit considerations. The research output from this study will provide intelligence and advice on retirement behaviour of Malaysian civil servants who are expected to decide on: (1) choice between DB (PENSION) versus DC (Employee Provident Fund/EPF) schemes; and (2) choice between owning versus not-owning any voluntary retirement scheme. Employing the multidimensional positivist paradigm, the researcher has conducted a questionnaire survey involving 348 Malaysian public university employees with a stratified random sampling method to collect primary data. Questionnaire feedback and responses were analysed applying two main binary models of logistic-regression. Eleven semi-structured interviews were analysed using the content analysis technique to complement the questionnaire results. The results were illuminating. First, they revealed an above-average level of satisfaction perceived by employees. Second, a statistically significant difference in satisfaction between the EPF and PENSION schemes has been found with higher satisfaction being recorded within the PENSION group. As for the voluntary scheme choice, the OWN group were significantly more satisfied compared to the NOT-OWN group. Knowledge, demographics, retirement income sources and plan features were variables found to influence the choice of compulsory schemes. The same variables, together with perceptions on voluntary savings, job related aspects, extension of working years beyond retirement, health status as well as preferences on risk and benefits were found to influence the decision to buy a voluntary scheme. There were no major contradictions between the qualitative findings and the quantitative results. The findings will be beneficial not only to the government in improving the national retirement system, but also to the industrial players in targeting potential customers for their retirement products.

The thesis aims to identify the main factors that significantly affect tourism demand for Egypt. Both time series data and panel data are used to model and forecast tourism demand for Egypt from all origins, as well as three individual regions of origin, including Europe, Arab and the Americas. The methodological and econometric approaches introduced in this thesis proceed from the simple to the more complex structure to obtain more reliable estimation. First, we estimate tourism demand for Egypt using the co-integration and error correction (CI/ECM) approach based on a single equation, followed by using a system of equations approach over the period 1970-2009. All the estimated econometric methods, in addition to two univariate time series methods, are used to generate ex-post forecasting for all the models over the period 2005-2009. The preferred method is used in producing ex-ante forecasting of future tourism demand for Egypt for the period 2010-2014. Panel co-integration techniques are also used to estimate tourism demand models over the period 1980-2009. Finally, the causality relationship between tourism demand and its economic determinants is estimated based on panel data analysis, which may provide more guidance for policy makers in Egypt. The results indicate that tourism demand for Egypt is found to be co-integrated with its fundamental determinants at the 1% significance level, with a high adjustment speed toward the steady state equilibrium. The importance of long-run income for all tourists from different nationalities is affirmed; with an elastic demand for non-Arab tourists. Price is also an important determinant, with a different effect in each originating region. It takes less than unity value for all tourists, except the Arab. Tunisia is found to be the most significant alternative to Egypt, with a complementary effect for Europe and the Americas tourists, but substitutability effect for Arab tourists. Hotel capacity is a significant and positive factor for all nationalities, except the Americas. Globalization is important in all models; it has a positive effect for all non-Arab nationalities. Political instability has a significant and negative effect, with the most effect on the Americas. All the determinants Granger cause tourist arrivals in the long run, but globalization and hotel capacity are of great importance with a bidirectional effect with tourist arrivals. Ex-post forecasting results show that the CI/ECMs outperform the other time series methods and produce highly accurate forecasts. The number of arrivals and nights from all origin markets is likely to increase in absolute terms (2010-2014), but with slower growth than recent trend.

This study explores empirically insights into two organisational phenomena; commitment and Organisational Citizenship Behaviours (OCBs). This exploration includes identifying interpretations of them, perceptions of their antecedents, views of management attitudes towards them and awareness of connections between them and individual performance. This study argues that individual experience, perceptions and views construct various meanings of concepts. Thus, it explores how employees in the Libyan banking sector make sense of the meanings of both concepts. Accordingly, taking a subjective qualitative research approach, this study offers empirical insights of 20 managerial and 20 non-managerial employees in the workplace at the banking sector in Libya. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews, and thematic analysis was applied to construct networks of themes, sub-categories and categories. Commitment is interpreted as a performance-related concept, which represents both attitudinal and behavioural aspects. It refers to having positive emotions, feelings and values attached to the organisation as well as practising positive behaviours, such as adhering to work regulations, obeying orders, and being punctual. However, OCBs are interpreted as social collaborative, intangibly rewarded, two-edged and mutable behaviours. These behaviours could be seen as in-role or extra-role behaviours based on the perceptions, experiences and views of the individuals. This study contributes to theory and practice of both phenomena by highlighting characteristics of commitment and OCBs in the Libyan cultural context. Theoretically, it provides a different understanding from the mainstream conceptualisations of both phenomena, as similarities and differences were highlighted. It contributes to the theory by reaffirming the debate that commitment is an attitudinal-behavioural concept. Interestingly, this study gives evidence that commitment is directed towards performance, not just directed towards maintaining membership with the organisation. With regard to OCBs, this study supports the claim that such behaviours are social, collaborative interactional behaviours, which spontaneously occur among employees. It reaffirms the debate that OCBs are voluntary, discretionary and individual-related behaviours. Moreover, this study adds to the theory by highlighting that participants interpret OCBs as intangibly rewarded and two-edged behaviours, which could be directed towards the interest of organisation or towards the interest of individuals. However, these understandings of commitment and OCBs are deeply rooted in the social, cultural and organisational aspects of participants, which reaffirm the debate that different individuals, institutions and contexts interact differently and then produce and construct different meanings and different interpretations of phenomena. Further, this study provides details for researchers who are interested in refining measurements of commitment and OCBs in cross-cultural contexts by highlighting similarities and differences among different meanings of those phenomena. On the other hand, in practice, this study provides details for influencing the overall organisational performance of local, private and foreign investors in the banking sector in Libya. Accordingly, this study provides guidelines for increasing organisational performance through in-role and extra-role performance. It highlights different organisational antecedents, management attitudes and connections with individual performance, which could be used to increase both commitment and OCBs, as both are seen as performance-related phenomena. Thus, it provides guidance for better management of human resources of those banks, which supports the privatisation strategy introduced in 2005 by the Libyan government in order to increase productivity of the banking sector. This in general will help in improving the current situation in the banking sector, consistent with the recent political and social change in the country.

Introduction: Driving the introduction of e-banking services in Egypt are structural changes, which have intensified competition across the banking sector. The value (net benefits) of e-banking services to their suppliers lies in their ability to attract new customers and retain those interested in using them. To achieve these objectives, requires an understanding of the value management process in e-banking services specifically within the Egyptian environment. Study Problem: Extant literature lacks an integrated model of value management relevant to the e-banking services. Empirical studies addressing the value of e-banking services in terms of antecedents and consequence in general and in the Egyptian environment are limited. Moreover, customer relationship management (CRM) literature disagrees on the factors reflecting the role of the internal operating environment and overlooks the role of the external environment in affecting the ability of service suppliers to create and deliver the value of e-banking services. Aim and objectives: This study sought to develop an integrated model for managing the value of e-banking services in the Egyptian environment through the following objectives. First, to identify the antecedents (requirements) and consequence of e-banking services perceived value from the demand side of e-banking services. Second, to explore factors shaping banks' ability to create and deliver value of offered e-banking services. Paradigm and research methods: This study adopted the critical realism paradigm, an anti-positivist paradigm, which supports the exploratory and the abductive nature of this research. To identify the antecedents and consequence of e-banking services perceived value from the demand side of e-banking services, an exploratory sequential strategy, in which in-depth interviews preceded the survey phase, was conducted. To explore factors shaping the banks' ability to create and deliver the value of e-banking services, semi-structured interviews were used. Key Findings: Findings related to the demand side indicated that improving e-banking services perceived value can significantly and positively strengthen the relationship between banks and customers. Antecedents of value were identified to be a combination of the explicit involvement of service suppliers in supporting face-to-face service encounters, e-banking services quality, and the role of external environment in promoting e-banking services. The ability of banks to create and deliver value of e-banking services is affected by their positioning strategy, bank branch design, employment scheme, criteria of recruiting front-office employees, and criteria of evaluating front-office employees' performance. The nature of the Egyptian economy, output of education system and legal system development were defined as highly influential within this process. Conclusion: It could be concluded that, managing the value of e-banking services is a dynamic process between service users and service suppliers.

A website’s perceived credibility is a critical issue for consumers when making an online purchase. In general, customers prefer not to purchase items on websites until they feel confident in their credibility. This is critical for Egyptian users as they perceive a high level of risk when internet shopping in Egypt. Perceptions of the credibility of websites vary based on an individual’s unique attributes and experiences (Lazar, Meiselwitz & Feng, 2007), and thus it seems logical that factors derived from one context might not be equally important for users in other contexts. Credibility is a crucial especially for airlines because booking airline ticket entails the disclosure of more personal and financial information than any other online transaction. Airline companies need to consider how they should improve the websites to make them credible for consumers. This study sought to develop an integrated model for the credibility of airline websites. The study had several aims. First, it aimed to explore the antecedents of airline website credibility as perceived by Egyptian online users. Second, it aimed to explore the extent to which users’ perceptions of website credibility is affected by their residence in an online-based country such as the UK compared with a face-to-face-based country such as Egypt. Third, it aimed to explore the relative importance of the antecedents of airline website credibility for Egyptian users and determine the relationship between Egyptian users’ demographics and perceptions of these antecedents. Fourth, by combining study finding, the study aimed to conceptualize a framework linking the antecedents of airline website credibility in the Egyptian context with the relationship between users’ perceptions of these antecedents and their demographics. To achieve the above objectives, this qualitative study adopts an interpretive approach mixed methods under the interpretive approach. An exploratory sequential strategy, in which 20 semi-structured interviews preceded a survey phase involving 200 respondents, was conducted to achieve the research objectives. The antecedents affecting perceptions of the credibility of airline websites were identified as a combination of factors related to the online presence of the airline company, factors related to the physical presence of the airline company and infrastructure factors in Egypt. The findings also highlighted the fact that credibility antecedents are not all of equal importance for Egyptians. The findings also revealed that Egyptians who reside in Egypt perceive the credibility of airline websites differently from Egyptians who reside in the UK. The age, gender, income, education and internet experience of users was found to impact on perceptions of the credibility of airline websites. The main contribution of this study is to enhance the understanding of the credibility of airline websites. This is important because there is inconclusive evidence about website credibility, especially with regard to airline websites.

Asset impairment is a relatively new term in the corporate reporting arena. However, the concept of asset impairment relates closely to that of an asset write-down. Asset write-downs historically have been a feature of corporate reporting for many years (Lee, 1975)) due to the principle of conservatism, although largely discretionary in nature in the UK until the introduction of Financial Reporting Standard 11 Impairment of Assets and Goodwill (FRS 11) in 1998. Asset impairment is defined by the Accounting Standards Board (ASB) in FRS 11 as the situation of: A reduction in the recoverable amount of a fixed asset or goodwill below its carrying amount (paragraph 2). Recoverable amount in this context is the higher of net realisable value or value in use. Prior to the issue of regulations in the area of asset impairment, there was very little guidance for corporations which may have been faced with large impairment losses. This could result in some discretion in terms of the timing and how to account for any asset impairment charge, for example either an adjustment to reserves or an expense in the income statement. The aim of this thesis is to explore the practice of impairment of assets in UK published financial statements and evaluate the concept and suitability of impairment as a means of recognising and subsequently measuring a decline in the value of a non current asset and the implications of this process. An assessment of the impact of international standards in relation to asset impairment being operational from January 2005 for UK listed corporations is also undertaken. The sample consists of those corporations listed on the UK Financial Times 100 Index (FTSE 100) of leading corporations from the period from 2003 to 2007-8. The thesis evaluates the extent of earnings management associated with asset impairment charges, both before and after the change in the regulatory environment. An assessment of whether an increase or decrease in the earnings characteristics of corporations takes place as a result of a change in the regulatory environment is also evaluated. Additionally the thesis provides a detailed assessment of the extent of disclosure associated with charging an asset impairment loss and whether this is associated with the size of the asset impairment loss. The measurement and valuation methods employed to implement an asset impairment loss are also evaluated. Other key areas of investigation focus on asset impairment losses being associated with a particular category of asset, business sector, indicator of asset impairment and a change of management. Fair value forms a component of asset impairment loss recognition and this thesis contributes to the debate about the ability of a fair value measurement approach to provide a true and fair view of the corporation.

This thesis explores the phenomenon of credentialed in-company management development programmes leading to management education postgraduate awards. The empirical site of the research is four case study organizations each of which had partnership arrangements with one of two UK universities. In each case management education programmes leading to management qualifications were undertaken as the means by which managers could develop their abilities to better contribute to organizational goals. In this there is an assumption that management education can seamlessly act as management development to the mutual benefit of the individual managers, the organization and the academy. The purpose of the thesis is to explore the extent to which such an assumption is warranted. The thesis adopts a stakeholder perspective in identifying key stakeholders in the management development/management education arena as the basis for the empirical research they are; the HR professionals, the university academic managers and the manager-learner participants. The research stance of the thesis is critical and contributes to the domains of critical management studies (CMS) and critical management education (CME). In advancing a critical approach, a multi-discourse analysis was undertaken. Thus the thesis produces findings aligning respectively with the concerns of functionalist, constructivist, critical and dialogic, discourses of management development whilst retaining an overall interpretive, critical stance. In so doing the thesis explores and analyses the ways that the management development / management education programmes in these case study organizations can be understood as sites that have conflicting purposes and values and also the extent to which these are reinforced, reconciled and proliferated.

At a global level, changes in the higher education environment - such as changing funding mechanisms, regulations and audit processes, increasing customer demands, competition and internationalization, and ongoing reduction in state resources for funding Higher Education has resulted in increased interest by academics and practitioners on leadership in the higher education sector. Recent studies have noted that there has been very limited research conducted on the question of which forms of academic leadership are associated with individual academic performance. Globalisation of higher education environment can bring many benefits to higher education organisations, but it can also expose them to a number of risks and challenges. The purpose of this study was to explore how leaders in the higher education sector are using their leadership abilities and skills to bring about enhanced academic performance from their academic colleagues and subordinates’. Therefore, in this research aims to identify which specific aspects of academic leadership skill-set have the maximum impact on academics’ performance. This research used six measures; namely visionary, adaptable to change, competency, effective leadership, transformational style and charisma, for quantifying academic leadership. Individual academic performance was measured by the construct titled work-related attitude (i.e. work-related attitude was considered to be a proxy for individual academic performance). Work-related attitude was quantified by three measures; namely job satisfaction, career satisfaction and organizational commitment. Both academic leadership landscape and academics’ work-related attitude were modelled as latent constructs. Based on data from fifteen interviews and a survey of faculty members of 261 academic staff from twenty Malaysian public universities, factor analyses was used to explore four groups of academic leadership constructs; namely innovative, effective, executive and adaptive. Similarly, factor analyses were used to establish four groups of work-related attitude constructs; namely organizational commitment, career satisfaction, job satisfaction and job skills. Regression analyses suggest that academic leadership was positively associated with work-related attitude. Further, multiple regression analyses suggests executive and innovative academic leadership behavioural traits were positively associated with organizational commitment, career satisfaction, job satisfaction and job skills of work-related attitude. Unfortunately, behavioural traits titled “effective” and "adaptive" had no association with any work-related attitude (i.e. academic performance). The implications of the results for theory and practice are significant. This research provides empirical evidence for the development of a theoretical model for academic leadership grounded in self-leadership theory. Further, this study also proposes a general definition of academic leadership according to faculty members’ perspectives and a diagnostic instrument for measurement of academic leadership and work-related attitude. The study gives a new perspective on factors that contribute toward academic leadership and work-related attitude. This study revealed which contributing factors of academic leadership and work-related attitude have significant impact on professional leadership in academia. Empirically, the study reveals the underpinning factors that influence the faculty members in understanding and exploring academic leadership and work-related attitudes. This study can assist faculty members of public universities in Malaysia in dealing with the challenges and demands in academia. University administrators (especially the vice chancellors), may urge their human resources departments to encourage their faculty members toward demonstrating executive and innovative behavioural traits in pursuing their academic life. Finally, this study contributes towards testing a model, instrument and research process that is based in the US in an Asian country – Malaysia. Moreover, the proposed model has the potential to be replicated in other countries. The main originality and value of this study is that it has addressed a research gap concerning academic leadership approaches to assessing and enhancing individual academic performance in a global context. The paper has identified which forms of academic leadership are associated with enhanced individual academic performance. In this context, this study proposes a new categorisation for measuring which specific aspects of academic leadership skill-set have the maximum impact on academics’ performance, and offers a characterisation of academic leadership skill-set on academics’ performance.