The research is a quantitative study that formulates an approach to future portfolio asset allocations within the South African domestic equity market, and the diversification of assets across global markets, specifically the U.S.A. The research takes the view that investors are rational, have a long term investment horizon and seek investment wealth maximisation by applying a sustainable investment strategy towards the ongoing management of the portfolio. Investors experience a significant negative divergence in investment outcomes relative to the potentially achievable result. This negative divergence is a result of the lack of a strategic approach to, and an understanding of asset allocations, and the lack of a sustainable approach to the management of a portfolio. Repetitive sub-optimal investment performance, below the levels of inflation, is an investment disincentive with negative micro and macro implications. The purpose of the study is therefore to address the issue sub-optimal investment performance through the effective application of a strategy that includes the integration of the mean-variance model through the use of a mean-variance optimiser, using resampled data inputs, the mean reversion of markets, passive investment management, appropriate asset class selection and the ongoing management of a portfolio, using both calendar and contingent rebalancing techniques, and passive formula strategies. The challenge is accordingly to develop a reliable asset allocation model that accommodates past performance, and which is stable enough to produce optimised forward-looking investment portfolios, which are able to address the issue of optimal asset allocation and selection, within a global context, and which produce optimised investment outcomes, taking cognisance of the fact that the future is unknowable and dynamic. The research methodology makes a positivist assumption that something exists and can be numerically tested. In this regard various portfolios are constructed, using passive investment instruments, in accordance with mean-variance model principles, using resampled data inputs to minimise the instability of the mean-variance optimiser. This resampling process is fundamental to the research, and incorporates the use of a stochastic simulator. A unique aspect of the research was solving the issue of multiple market integration particularly when the domestic markets are comprised of multiple asset classes. Finally, the resultant resampled efficient portfolios are compared to control portfolios in order to ascertain whether the resampling process indeed offers a return premium. Due to the dynamic nature of equity markets contingent and calendar rebalancing strategies are applied to the asset allocation in order to maintain an optimal portfolio. This dynamism may necessitate the adjustment of asset allocations. The test for asset allocation optimality takes the form of measuring portfolio outcome correlations to the actual market outcome. Where the portfolio is sub-optimal the asset allocations are redetermined, otherwise the portfolio is merely rebalanced to the original asset allocations. Regarding the management of the portfolio a value averaged passive formula strategy is applied. This process acknowledges that markets may behave stochastically over the short term, therefore a predetermined value line is derived that the portfolio is to achieve. This value line is based on a long term equity premium plus inflation. Should the portfolio breach the value line on the upside a portion of the investment is liquidated, conversely when the portfolio fails to reach the value line the portfolio is elevated to the value line by means of increasing the investment. The results of the research manifest unambiguous results in favour of resampled portfolios. In this regard, therefore, data resampling does seem to produce stable portfolio results that are effective at capturing a higher proportion of future returns than a simple market portfolio. Furthermore, the rebalancing process, although not absolutely perfect, does provide a level of adjustment to the asset allocation to ensure optimality. Finally, management of the portfolio through value averaging unambiguously provides an internal rate of return in excess of a portfolio that is allowed to stochastically rise and fall. In summary, the integration of the identified processes clearly provides a performance premium in excess of alternative approaches, and within a framework that is sustainable from period to period.

The focus of this study was on cultural diversity and its possible impact on brand management in the cellular industry. The study showed that cultural diversity, as one of the important aspects in the consumerâs environment, is important to consider when carrying out brand management and branding activities. Doing so will play a role in influencing consumers to make favourable purchasing decisions. Data were collected from Free State Province individuals (510). Cross-tabulations, factor analysis and cluster analysis were carried out on the database. The study resulted in the identification of four clusters. The cultural diversity components used to identify these clusters were: age, gender, race, social class and lifestyle. These clusters had different characteristics from one another. In each cluster there was a difference in lifestyle characteristics and perception of brand equity. There was also a difference in the reasons why a cellular phone is used. The results about the clusters show that no single approach can be used to target them. There has to be different approaches of which each can also be an opportunity for marketing managers to differentiate their branding activities. The manner in which clusters were identified is complex and yet gives insightful information which will help marketing managers make better decisions. In other words simple segment approaches should be avoided. Also, the clusters are not constant; they evolve over time. It is therefore suggested that such an activity should be reviewed more often. The main contribution of this study is that cultural diversity is an integral part of brand management from the perspective of the consumer. Furthermore, consumers can no longer just be defined by cultural diversity components in isolation, i.e. age, gender, race, social class and lifestyle. Their definition will vary depending on the industry in concern. In other words, the consumers will need to be defined by the unique clusters they belong to and these clusters will be different depending on the industry concerned.

According to the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor survey, South Africa has a low early stage entrepreneurial activity rate of 7.8%, which is significantly lower than the average for all efficiency-driven economies (11.4%) as well as the average for all middle to low income countries (13.2%).Also, high levels of poverty, income inequality and unemployment are major issues that impact the economic growth of South Africa. Pahad (2008) acknowledged that South Africaâs social-economic goals are to reduce inequalities, reduce wealth and asset gaps between rich and poor, halve unemployment by 2014 and meet the Millennium Development Goals. However, one way of solving these issues is to encourage more foreign SMEs as they are capable of providing investment injections in various sectors of South Africaâs economy, such as agriculture, industry, education, and health. Likewise, these foreign SMEs can help eradicate poverty, improve employment and reduce income inequality and wealth disparity between the rich and poor. The main objective of this study was to investigate the motives of Chinese SMEs foreign direct investment in the Free State Province (FSP) and their perception about the external business environment in South Africa. The study examine empirically the motives of Chinese SMEs operating in the Free State province and determined if they were driven by the supply/resourcebased or the market driven factors. The study also identified the external environmental factors which can hinder foreign SMEs from investment in South Africa. Across-sectional study using the survey method was used to collect the data. Simple random sampling method and a non-probability snowball sampling method were used to determine the sample size of Chinese SMEs in the Free State province. A standard questionnaire was designed after a detailed literature review of the business environment and foreign SMEs investments. Data was gathered through self-administered questionnaires. The specific methods of data analyses used include descriptive statistics, cross-tabulations, frequency tables and T-tests. Reliability was tested using the Cronbachâs Alpha. Pre-testing the research instrument in a pilot study was used to determine the validity of the research. The research findings showed that the motives of the Chinese SMEs foreign direct investment in the Free State was predominantly market-seeking FDI. The findings also showed that the many external factors were impacting the operation of the foreign businesses negatively with crime, corruption, labour regulations and xenophobia being reckoned as the main external factors severely impacting the businesses. In addition, the Chinese SMEs had a negative perception about the external business environment of South Africa with 86% of them indicating that they had suffered from crime. Furthermore, the empirical findings revealed that SMEs in the manufacturing sector employed the highest number of employees and have stayed in SA for a longer period. Similarly, most of the exporters were in the manufacturing sector. However, the majority of those who were unsatisfied about their investment decisions and were willing to leave South Africa were in the manufacturing sector. The study provided some recommendations to improve the external business environment of SA so that more effective and efficient FDI is attracted. The recommendations include the need to improve the fight against crime as it is seen as the number one factor impacting and deterring away FDIs from SA. To attract sufficient supply/resource-based FDI, the government also needs to improve its labour regulations, thus easing the hiring process. To add, South Africa has to make its legal system more efficient by shortening the long procedures and duration of court judgments as well as making it more affordable. A better legal system can reduce crime, corruption and unethical behaviour.

In the past twenty years there has been major change in the way business support services are rendered in the global economy. These shifts have brought new insights into the process of business support services. Six main changes in the approach to business support were identified. First, permanent government or donor funding was replaced by a mere start-up funding approach in order to provide sustainable business support services. Second, a larger range of market-driven and market-priced services that were delivered at a quality/price mix determined by end-users replaced the high costs of a limited range of services that used to be subsidised. Third, historically, literature shows that government and donors could not reach all small business but a limited number, and therefore a targeted client approach was introduced in order for the government and donors to reach them effectively. This paradigm shift was intended to place an emphasis on service providers in the private-sector. Fourth, the emphasis on the impact of poverty changed from one of short-term benefits to one of long-term benefits to providers and clients, indirectly benefiting the poor through job creation. Next, the mainly male clientele was replaced by small-enterprise owners which included females. Finally, there was a significant shift towards being demand-driven in respect of the needs of enterprises. This meant both that the range of services was expanded and that they were mostly delivered on a cost-recovery basis. It is against this background that South African Small Micro and Medium Enterprise (SMME) policy aims to address the issues of SMME support and development in the country. SMMEs in South Africa were operating in the era of the apartheid regime but were not given enough support and were not a priority. Before democratic transition, the South African government was mainly giving attention to large businesses as well as state-owned enterprises. It was only in the late 1970s and the early 1980s that the South African government realised the importance of the small enterprise sector and its contribution to the countryâs economy. The democratic regime of the early 1990s gave SMMEs an opportunity to participate in the South African economy. A White Paper of 1995 came up with the strategy to promote and develop SMMEs in South Africa and to design an SMME policy framework that will focus its attention on supporting and developing SMMEs. The aim was to enable SMMEs to grow as a way of creating a balance in the economy (away from state-owned and large enterprises) As a result, different support mechanisms have been implemented to support and develop SMMEs in the country since the democratic government took over in 1994. The study focused primarily in the Free State Province, aiming to identify how the SMME policy intends to address the issues of supporting and developing SMMEs, and how the business support programmes assist in supporting and developing SMMEs in the province. Some of the empirical findings suggest that the world-wide shifts in business support programmes have not always filtered through to South Africa. Therefore policies were largely designed to address the equity issues related to SMMEs. The inherent approach of policy and practice was thus on the supply side and not on the demand side. Consequently, not all the lessons from the international experience were incorporated. In addition, the SMME policy and practice have had limited success and in many cases not measurable due to the absence of appropriate M&E systems. In conclusion, the study recommend that there is a need for business support programmes to learn more directly from the international paradigms and practice and apply the relevant practices of business support services in order to develop and promote SMMEs in the Free State and in the process review the SMME policy and make it focus mainly on the demand-driven approach. Moreover, the study recommends that there should be M&E systems available to document the quality of the service delivery to SMMEs in order to ensure compliance with the international standards.

Economies, organizations (small, medium and large) and individuals must discover and commercialize new products in order to compete and prosper in the 21st century global economy. The importance of introducing new products to the market can be seen in the fact that it builds a sustainable competitive advantage for economies, organizations and individuals. Furthermore, these new products do not only lead to profits for individuals and organizations, but it also improves the quality of life of all individuals and generate further economic opportunities. Through the commercialization of innovation, the gap between the needs of the market and the inventions which innovators have can be bridged. However, it remains a key challenge to all innovators to take an invention from the idea phase to the market in order to produce economic returns. Ideas or inventions cannot generate economic returns for the innovator. It is only once the invention is successfully absorbed into the marketplace that the inventor can benefit from its profit, and therefore the importance of commercializing inventions is highlighted. Globally the failure rates of new products are especially high, preventing innovators from gaining financial benefits. New product failure rates are estimated at between 50- 80% and even major companies with sufficient resources struggle with the commercialization of inventions. The high failure rates of inventions can be attributed to a wide variety of factors, including limited access to resources, failure of innovators to sufficiently protect their inventions or weak marketing efforts, among others. One such reason for failure, however, is the fact that innovators are unsure about the steps to follow in commercializing an invention. Innovators either take false steps and waste valuable time, or they leave out critical steps in the process. It is important for innovators to know what the steps in the commercialization process are and to follow them, in order to ensure that they follow a logical process; plan for all the important aspects regarding commercialization and are aware of what will be required of them at the different stages in the process. South Africa is not doing well in bringing new research discoveries to the market and there may be many reasons for this problem. In order to introduce new inventions to the market successfully through commercialization, it is important to know what the problems/barriers are that innovators experience during the commercialization process. It is also important to identify the need for a common framework understood by government, higher education, research councils, technology organizations and venture capital to help identify roles and functional relationships in the system of innovation. This study aimed to acquire information regarding the problems and/or barriers confronting entrepreneurs in the commercialization process, by determining how successful individuals and SMMEs were in commercializing their innovation. The client base of the Centrum for Rapid Prototyping and Manufacturing (CRPM) and the Technology Station (PDTS) for 2005 to 2010 were used in this study. The secondary objectives were to investigate the steps the entrepreneur followed in the commercialization process; to identify the factors, both positively and negatively, that influence the commercialization of innovation; to determine the problems/mistakes that entrepreneurs made in the commercialization process; and to determine the success factors for entrepreneurs in the commercialization process. The results showed that the minority of the respondents (20%) managed to commercialize their inventions successfully. The remaining 80% of the respondents were either still busy moving through the commercialization process or had become stagnant. Furthermore, the results indicated that the typical innovator does not follow the chronological order of the steps in the commercial process, as indicated in the literature. Many of the steps in the commercialization process were not completed as thoroughly as needed and some of the steps were omitted completely. The reasons most often cited by the respondents for their lack of progress and/or stagnation in the commercialization process are a lack of funds and a lack of support. In other words, the respondents did not have sufficient capital to commercialize the invention on their own and either did not know where to go to obtain the financial aid needed or were not successful in their application for funding. The lack of support the respondents referred to include support in terms of knowledge regarding the commercialization process, i.e. what each step in the commercialization process entails as well as what should be done next in the commercialization process. These two reasons were the most often cited barriers to the successful commercialization of the respondents. Several recommendations are made at the end of this study that could bridge the abovementioned barriers. The focus falls mainly on the Government, and various recommendations regarding government support institutions are made that could better aid innovators through the commercialization process.

The primary objective of this study was to investigate the challenges that urban Zimbabwean women entrepreneurs face. The study was motivated by the theoretical findings that women have always been discriminated against politically, economically, socioâculturally, legally, educationally and at work. Scholars of gender studies assert that despite the fact that over the last decades women had attained educational levels comparable to those of men, women still remained in relatively low paying jobs (Wirth, 2001:49; Carter & Silva, 2010:19, 20â1). Due to frustrations and challenges faced in the workplace, some women in both developed and developing countries had left formal employment to start their own businesses. According to Coulter (2000:114), even in business where women had opted to be, they continued to face challenges. A review of literature further indicated that the historical background of women in developed countries differed from that of women in developing countries because of differences in environmental factors (Adler & Israeli quoted by Woldie & Ardesua, 2004:79). However, the challenges that women faced were similar except that in developed countries more gains had been registered in improving womenâs lives compared to developing countries. Theoretical findings about Zimbabwe showed that historically, women were excluded from actively participating in politics and in decision making. Economically, women were denied ownership of resources such as land and were thus dependent on men who were regarded as bread winners. Socioâculturally, activities were arranged according to gender; thus, there were activities strictly done by men and others reserved for women. Legally, women were regarded as minors and for that reason women could not enter into any contractual obligations in their own right. In regards to education, girls were encouraged to take up subjects that were not strategically linked to the mainstream economy, while boys were channeled towards subjects that would enable them to occupy meaningful and strategic positions in the workplace. However, it was worth noting that the Government of Zimbabwe, just like governments in other countries had instituted legal amendments to redress discrimination on the basis of sex and positive developments had been achieved. These developments had enabled women to start their own businesses. According to Ministry of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs), Zimbabwe, 2010), in Zimbabwe, there are 20 665 registered urban women entrepreneurs. In the light of the statement by Coulter (2000:114) that in business women continued to face challenges, it was fundamental that the challenges faced by urban Zimbabwean women entrepreneurs be identified, hence the need for this study. Identification of these challenges would enable the government of Zimbabwe and other stakeholders to devise specific policies and strategies to minimise the impact of these challenges on women owned businesses. This would enable women entrepreneurs to operate viable and sustainable businesses. An empirical study was therefore conducted to investigate what the challenges women entrepreneurs faced were. This study was a combination of quantitative research design and descriptive research in which the simple random sampling technique was used to draw the sample. The sample comprised 580 registered women entrepreneurs drawn from the Small and Medium Enterprises sector in the four major cities of Zimbabwe, namely, Harare, Bulawayo, Gweru and Masvingo. The survey method was adopted as the data gathering method where a self constructed and self administered questionnaire was used as the data gathering instrument. A pilot study was conducted before the questionnaires were distributed for the main study. Reliability testing of the questionnaire showed a Cronbachâs Alpha value of 0.802 for all Likert questions based on the background of women of Zimbabwe and business challenges. These results indicated that the questionnaire was reliable as a data collecting instrument. Data collected was transformed for statistical analysis through the use of Excel software. After data processing, the Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for data analysis. Statistical techniques used in this study included frequencies, percentages, cross tabulations and Pearson chiâsquare tests, descriptive statistics and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Relating to respondentsâ demographic profile, empirical results showed that 50.4 percent of the respondents in this study are married compared to 24.5 percent single and 25.1 percent separated, divorced or widowed. Results further indicated that 83.8 percent of the respondents have children and 73.2 percent have dependent children. The average number of children is 2.26 and the average number of dependent children is 1.50. The average age of respondents in this study was 38.0 years. Results further indicated that respondents in this study are highly qualified, with 51.5 percent having tertiary education. The dominant religion in this study was Christianity. Most of the respondents owned businesses in the services sector compared to âotherâ businesses (67.2 percent and 32.8 percent respectively). Results indicated that 54.7 percent of the respondents had been in business for 5 years and below. Results also showed that 37.2 percent of the respondents had relevant startâup experience. In terms of startâup capital, women entrepreneurs in this study used internal more than external sources of finance (79.2 percent and 20.8 percent respectively). Findings also indicated that women entrepreneurs were predominantly sole proprietors compared to those in partnership. The following empirical findings were indicated regarding womenâs background. Firstly, women can now actively participate in politics and decision making processes in spite of the fact that women have more confidence in male than female political leaders. Secondly, economically, women can own property in their own right and the majority of women are no longer financially dependent on men. Thirdly, socioâculturally, women are more confident than they were historically and can now challenge men on religious issues. Fourthly, women can now engage in activities that were previously done by men only, such as being formally employed. Men can also perform duties that were previously done by women only. Fifthly, legally, men and women are equal before the law. Sixthly, after 18 years of age, women can make any legal decisions without consulting male members of the family. Seventhly, some men do not accept women as their equals. Eighthly, some men still abuse their wives because they have paid lobola (bride price) for them. Ninthly, despite their legal rights, married women predominantly still have to consult their husbands before making any business decisions. Tenthly, regarding education, girls are now given equal educational opportunities by their parents and at school girls are free to study subjects and embark on courses of their choices. However, there are still some cultures and religions that expect girls to leave school young to marry. Finally, at work, both in the private and public sectors, there are equal job opportunities for both men and women. There are also fair promotional opportunities for both men and women in the public and private sectors. Men and women doing the same jobs are remunerated at the same levels and there is equal taxation for both men and women. There are no jobs exclusively reserved for women both in the government and private sectors. However, there are more educated men than women in the job market. According to empirical results, women started their businesses due to opportunity (pull) and necessity (push) factors. Findings also showed that some women have left formal employment to start their own businesses due to work related factors such as the âglass ceilingâ that blocked their access to top executive ranks; gender role stereo typing, negative societal influences and pay differentials, lack of acceptance by men, sexual harassment, balancing home and family responsibilities, and stress. The following empirical results were revealed about the market environment: First, customers no longer look down upon women owned businesses. Second, male workers now respect women who have employed them. Third, suppliers now offer both men and women entrepreneurs the same credit terms. Fourth, bank officials in Zimbabwe give women the same treatment as men when applying for loans. Fifth, women entrepreneurs can easily access established private business networks. Sixth, male auditors have developed a positive attitude towards women running businesses. Finally, some men entrepreneurs have accepted women entrepreneurs as equal business partners. The study also revealed some challenges that women entrepreneurs still have to contend with in the market environment. Women still have a problem of lack of collateral. Another challenge that women entrepreneurs face is that of becoming members of formal business organisations. Women also find it difficult to access government networks. According to empirical findings on the macro environment, women now have equal chances of getting business tenders as men. On the socioâcultural front women indicated that their religions allowed them to run their own businesses. There are now support services to enable women to operate their own businesses. Respondents also indicated that they registered their businesses without legal problems and that women can now own property in their own names. Women entrepreneurs also confirmed that amended laws have brought equality between men and women entrepreneurs. However, empirical results also indicated that at economic level, women still find it difficult to enter male dominated sectors like construction. Socioâculturally, most women entrepreneurs indicated that they still face the challenges of balancing home and business responsibilities. Despite the availability of support services, the HIV/AIDS pandemic has also exacerbated their workload. Married women still have to request their husbands to coâsign before they can get any loans. Conclusively, empirical findings indicate that most of the cases of discrimination highlighted in the problem statement in Chapter 1 Section 1.4, and in the historical background of Zimbabwean business women, have been reduced and in some cases eliminated.

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Agricultural commodity price volatility in developing countries is a challenging phenomenon that has attracted attention amongst researchers and policy makers. Although this is a global issue, it has different magnitudes and impacts across countries and amongst commodities. The literature highlights a number of factors for agricultural price volatility. Some of them are driven by global circumstances whereas others are caused by domestic policies and economic settings in particular countries. A major concern about the volatility of agricultural prices is its impact of individual producers and countries' economic performance. In endeavouring to overcome the problem of producer vulnerability to price volatility, a number of measures have been in place over many years. Most of these measures, like stabilization schemes and international commodity agreements, have proved failure. Today, the emphasis seems to have shifted from the failed aggregate measures to market-related instruments, like options and commodity futures. However, producers in developing countries have limited or no access to these instruments due to some restrictions. On the other hand, whereas agricultural market liberalisation has become a global agenda as a way of improving market performance and stabilising prices, its impact and realised benefits differ across countries, and there is a debate about the outcomes of liberalisation. More importantly, as domestic policymakers and international organs like the World Bank endeavour to facilitate the use market instruments to hedge against price risk, the knowledge about the impact of market reforms on price behaviours is vital. This study is about the impact of coffee market liberalisation in Tanzania on the volatility of coffee producer prices and the relationships between producer prices and world coffee market prices. Like other developing countries, the Tanzanian coffee market has been undergoing liberalisation reforms since 1993. Some studies have been conducted on the impact of agricultural liberalisation in Tanzania, but only few of them have focused on coffee prices. Moreover, most of these previous studies produce contradicting results, making the debate about the outcomes of Tanzanian coffee liberalisation inconclusive. Particularly, whereas the link between hedging strategies and price behaviours is inseparable, there is no evidence of any study about the impact of the Tanzanian coffee market liberalisation on coffee producer price behaviours.