Un des objectifs de l’écologie évolutive est de comprendre les causes et conséquences de la diversité biologique. L’étude des facteurs à l’origine de la divergence phénotypique des populations et de la formation d’adaptations locales peut nous donner des indications sur les causes de la diversité intra spécifique, de la formation des espèces et sur la trajectoire évolutive des populations. La divergence phénotypique des populations peut être adaptative ou neutre. L’hétérogénéité spatiale des conditions écologiques, via la variation des pressions de sélection qu'elle engendre, est un des facteurs importants à l’origine de la divergence adaptative des populations. Elle peut causer une divergence adaptative phénotypique ou plastique. Selon le type de divergence, les populations n’auront pas la même trajectoire évolutive. Traditionnellement, il a été considéré que la divergence génétique et adaptative des populations était peu probable lorsqu’elles sont séparées par des distances que les organismes peuvent franchir lors de leur dispersion parce que le flux génique homogénéiserait les génotypes entre les populations.Un nombre croissant d’études rapporte la présence de différences de comportements entre les individus qui sont stables dans le temps et héritables. Ce type de variation intra spécifique a été nommée personnalité. Il a récemment été proposé que les traits de personnalité auraient coévolué avec des traits d’histoire de vie et des traits physiologiques (hypothèse du syndrome de train de vie). Selon cette hypothèse, nous pourrions trouver au niveau de la métapopulation, différentes combinaisons de traits dans l’espace façonnées par le régime local de sélection. Néanmoins, jusqu’à présent peu d’études ont porté sur l’importance relative des effets plastiques et génétiques et des pressions de sélections pour la divergence des populations pour des traits de personnalité et encore moins pour le syndrome de train de vie.Notre objectif était de déterminer si une forte variation spatiale de conditions écologiques pouvait mener à une divergence phénotypique et génétique adaptative pour des traits de personnalité entre des populations connectées par un flux génique. Nous avons répondu à cet objectif grâce au suivi à long terme de trois populations sauvages de mésanges bleues (Cyanistes caeruleus) présentent dans une mosaïque d’habitats très contrastée en Corse (France). Des études réalisées précédemment ont montré que bien qu’elles soient connectées par un flux génique et séparées par de petites distances spatiales (6 à 25 km), ces populations diffèrent au niveau phénotypique et génétique pour plusieurs types de traits, dont des traits d’histoire de vie.Notre étude indique que ces populations divergent au niveau phénotypique et génétique pour des traits de personnalité chez les adultes et les jeunes. De plus, nos résultats suggèrent que ces divergences ne sont pas le fruit de processus neutres, mais pourraient être plutôt causées par la sélection naturelle et être adaptatives. Nous sommes ainsi une des premières études à montrer des divergences génétiques adaptatives pour des traits de personnalité à une échelle spatiale aussi fine. Par ailleurs, les divergences de moyennes populationnelles observées sont en accord avec les prédictions du syndrome de train de vie. Ainsi, bien que d’autres études plus approfondies soient nécessaires pour le confirmer, nos résultats suggèrent que les divergences observées entre ces populations sont issues de la coévolution d’un ensemble de traits formant un train de vie rapide ou lent façonné par le régime local de sélection.En somme, cette thèse souligne l’importance de l’hétérogénéité environnementale pour la diversité intra spécifique et montre qu’une divergence phénotypique, génétique et adaptative est possible pour des traits comportementaux souvent considérés comme plus plastiques et moins sujets aux divergences génétiques. / Environmental heterogeneity, spatial variation in selection pressure and gene flow are known to be important for shaping intra-specific variation and local adaptations. However, their roles as drivers of variation and divergence in behavioral traits have seldom been studied. Here, we studied the phenotypic divergence of breeding and fledgling blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) for personality traits across three wild populations situated in contrasted habitats yet connected by gene flow. We first compared the mean personality phenotype of each population. Second, using common garden, reciprocal transplant and cross-fostering experiment we investigated the genetic basis of the observed divergence. Third, we determined the selection pressure acting on the personality phenotype in each population. We found phenotypic and genetic difference between populations and our results suggested that these divergences result from the local selection regime in each habitat. Overall, our results highlight the importance of environmental heterogeneity in the maintenance of small-scale intra-specific variation for behavioral traits.

Oxycarenus lavaterae is species of Heteroptera and possessing pink blots on corium and distinctive, gleaming membranaceous wings. This appearance could correspond to the definition of a warning color. The design is similar to other coreoid Heteroptera, which live in the Czech Republic; though Oxycarenus lavaterae is a species originating from Mediterranean and quickly spreading north. In Czech Republic it is a new species and predators thus have only short experience with it.The information about chemical protection of Oxycarenus lavaterae is weak and the effect on predators has never been tested. The characteristic behaviour for this species is creating large aggregations, primarily at the time of hibernation. At that time, several thousands of individuals are gathered in apertures or at the surface of tree bark. The aggregation may enhance the warning appearance of this species. The aim of this study was to test the response of bird predators to the adult individuals of Oxycarenus lavaterae. Three species of insectivorous birds differing in the level of foraging and diet specialization was chosen as predator (namely - Great tit (Parus major), Blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus), Eurasian blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla)). Unmodified individuals of Oxycarenus lavaterae were served to these predators. In the case of the Parus major, the aggregation of Oxycarenus lavaterae (about 100 pieces) was also presented to test the effect of gregarious behavior on the warning signal. This study showed that the Parus major and the Sylvia atricapilla attacked the individual Oxycarenus more often than the Cyanistes caeruleus showing high level of restraint. In experiments with aggregatedOxycarenus lavaterae Parus major attacked them less often than when presented solitarily. However, after eating some Oxycarenus lavaterae, the Parus major showed symptoms of disgust and loss of appetite.

This thesis evaluates the vigilance parameters of two species of tits affected by the presence of a predator in wintertime. During preferential experiments, tits have had a choice of two feeders in the vicinity of the installed dummy predator. For that purpose was used a dummy sparrowhawk, incomplete or occluded sparrowhawk torsos, and harmless pigeon. It is known that the tits are able to recognize dangerousness presented by the dummy, and according to expected risk dare to visit one of the feeders. It leads to a question whether the tits are somehow influenced by the presence of the dummies, and if so, how specifically are they influenced. It turned out, that the tits in presence of a dangerous dummy significantly increased their vigilance. Both observed species at the feeders behave oppositely. Behaviour of all the birds at the feeder is also affected by their total count at the precise moment and by the presence of a dummy at the other feeder.

Existing research on the foraging ecology and breeding biology of blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) and great tits(Parus major) has mainly concentrated on populations in woodland. However increasing urbanisation means much of the suitable tit habitat is represented by fragmented areas, not large woodlands, and little is known about factors that may affect reproductive success in urban environments. Using General and Generalised Linear Models this study compared reproductive performance in four habitat types with differing levels of habitat modification: the Cambridge University Botanic Garden (CUBG) with an abundance of non-native vegetation and structural fragmentation, two marginal sites with native scrubby vegetation and structural fragmentation and small fragments and large fragments of native woodland. Compositional analysis was used in a study focused on how foraging blue tits used the heterogeneous habitat of the CUBG. Additionally frequency tests were used to compare foraging preferences and foraging behaviours of both species in the CUBG. Productivity was poor in the CUBG compared to all of the other habitats, with great tits appearing to do worse than blue tits, rearing lower quality chicks (significantly lower mean mass than in other habitats). Within the CUBG, positive relationships were found between the abundance of native trees and shrubs and breeding success for both blue tits and great tits. A positive relationship was found between breeding success in blue tits and the abundance of Quercus and Betula. However, habitat and year interactions showed that habitat and reproductive relationships were complicated by annual variation. The two species differed in their foraging preferences in the CUBG; blue tits were observed feeding in native deciduous trees significantly more than in non-native species and had a preference for birch trees over other taxa. Great tits however showed no strong preferences for any of the habitat types. With regards to foraging behaviours, great tits used a wider range of foraging heights and different foraging locations and capture techniques than blue tits. Blue tits were observed‘hanging’ from twigs more frequently, and appeared to be more effective at foraging in the wider variety of plants available in the heterogeneous vegetation of the garden. The data presented in this thesis suggest that blue tits have adopted a better foraging strategy by preferentially choosing native deciduous trees over the abundance of non-natives available in the CUBG. However, despite the apparent better foraging strategy of blue tits, reproductive performance of both species is poor in this urban garden compared to marginal sites and woodland. Urbanisation and the associated loss of optimal tit habitat are likely to continue. It is therefore important to offset urbanisation by the addition of appropriate foraging habitats that are likely to improve reproductive success, such as native trees and shrubs.

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a degenerative disorder where the distribution of pathology throughout the brain is not random but follows a predictive pattern used for pathological staging. While the involvement of defined functional systems is fairly well established for more advanced stages, the initial sites of degeneration are still ill defined. The prevailing concept suggests an origin within the transentorhinal and entorhinal cortex (EC) from where pathology spreads to other areas. Still, this concept has been challenged recently suggesting a potential origin of degeneration in nonthalamic subcortical nuclei giving rise to cortical innervation such as locus coeruleus (LC) and nucleus basalis of Meynert (NbM). To contribute to the identification of the early site of degeneration, here, we address the question whether cortical or subcortical degeneration occurs more early and develops more quickly during progression of AD. To this end, we stereologically assesses neurone counts in the NbM, LC and EC layer-II in the same AD patients ranging from preclinical stages to severe dementia. In all three areas, neurone loss becomes detectable already at preclinical stages and is clearly manifest at prodromal AD/MCI. At more advanced AD, cell loss is most pronounced in the NbM > LC > layer-II EC. During early AD, however, the extent of cell loss is fairly balanced between all three areas without clear indications for a preference of one area. We can thus not rule out that there is more than one way of spreading from its site of origin or that degeneration even occurs independently at several sites in parallel.

Social learning in animals is a frequently studied topic, including birds. Great tits belong to frequently tested passerine species in this context. For this experiment we have chosen another tit species as model birds - adult and juvenile blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) and coal tits (Periparus ater). We tested an effect of social information on discrimination learning between palatable and unpalatable prey. Red and green artificial prey items resembling shieldbugs with a mealworm glued underneath were offered to birds. One variant was palatable, the other was unpalatable, soaked in bitter substance. Experimental groups were allowed to observe a pretrained tutor of the same species choosing palatable prey variant and rejecting the unpalatable one. The birds were then subjected to an individual discrimination learning task with simultaneously offered palatable and unpalatable prey items. The control group was not allowed to observe tutor and learned only individually. On the following day, all birds participated in a memory test. We tested if social information has an influence on avoidance learning in juvenile and adult birds of both species. We found that both species of tits were similarly successful in discrimination learning and there was no difference in success in performance between adult...

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a degenerative disorder where the distribution of pathology throughout the brain is not random but follows a predictive pattern used for pathological staging. While the involvement of defined functional systems is fairly well established for more advanced stages, the initial sites of degeneration are still ill defined. The prevailing concept suggests an origin within the transentorhinal and entorhinal cortex (EC) from where pathology spreads to other areas. Still, this concept has been challenged recently suggesting a potential origin of degeneration in nonthalamic subcortical nuclei giving rise to cortical innervation such as locus coeruleus (LC) and nucleus basalis of Meynert (NbM). To contribute to the identification of the early site of degeneration, here, we address the question whether cortical or subcortical degeneration occurs more early and develops more quickly during progression of AD. To this end, we stereologically assesses neurone counts in the NbM, LC and EC layer-II in the same AD patients ranging from preclinical stages to severe dementia. In all three areas, neurone loss becomes detectable already at preclinical stages and is clearly manifest at prodromal AD/MCI. At more advanced AD, cell loss is most pronounced in the NbM > LC > layer-II EC. During early AD, however, the extent of cell loss is fairly balanced between all three areas without clear indications for a preference of one area. We can thus not rule out that there is more than one way of spreading from its site of origin or that degeneration even occurs independently at several sites in parallel.

Avian malaria (Plasmodium spp.) is a popular model system to study the ecology and evolution of parasite-host-vector interactions in the wild. These studies have historically focused mostly on the avian hosts and the malaria parasites. Knowledge regarding the role of vectors is essential to our understanding of these wild systems, but has only very recently started to accumulate. This thesis aimed to contribute to this field by assessing mosquito-malaria-host associations for British mosquitoes and the role of mosquito ecology in shaping these parasite systems in a British woodland study site, using molecular, field ecology and statistical modelling methodologies. From the 12 mosquito species or species groups found, I showed that the Cx.pipiens/torrentium mosquito group is likely to have a major role in avian malaria transmission in Great Britain, while Cs. annulata may be transmitting P. circumflexum. I also demonstrated a positive spatial association between mosquito density per host and avian malaria prevalence, in accordance with theoretical expectations for malaria transmission. Findings here provide evidence that avian malaria transmission in British woodlands is limited mainly to June-August, being preceded by relapse of previous infections or, alternatively, by maintenance of chronic blood parasitaemia through the colder months; this agrees with theoretical expectations and findings elsewhere for temperate climates. This thesis also described local-scale spatial heterogeneity and seasonal variation in adult mosquito abundance within a British woodland where avian malaria is endemic, with differing patterns found between species or species groups. Spatially, variation in adult mosquito abundance was associated with microclimatic and landscape variables such as distances to mosquito breeding sites, microclimate and canopy height; seasonally, variation in mosquito abundance was associated with temperature and rainfall, alongside calendar date. The heterogeneity in mosquito parameters and associations with environmental variables found at a site where avian malaria is endemic highlights the need to anticipate such complexity when trying to understand Plasmodium transmission. By doing so, we further extend the potential of these parasite systems to improve our knowledge regarding the ecology and evolution of parasite-host-vector associations.