Achieving the reductions in carbon dioxide emissions which are necessary will require improvements in the way in which domestic space heating is supplied. Air Source Heat Pumps and micro-Combined Heat and Power units both have the potential to reduce emissions while using primary energy resources more efficiently. The performance which these technologies can achieve is fundamental to fulfilling this potential and yet it is still subject to some uncertainty. This thesis analyses the performance of Air Source Heat Pumps and micro-Combined Heat and Power units in terms of their energy and exergy requirements and in terms of the carbon dioxide emissions associated with their operation. A review of the literature identified that it was appropriate to develop a novel modelling approach. Models of many components currently exist and these are adopted and extended wherever possible within this modelling approach. However, it is the unique way in which this research combines these models and adds additional components which delivers performance data relating to a wider range of conditions at a greater level of detail than that which was previously available. The model which was developed can dynamically simulate the heating and power demands in many dwellings simultaneously, facilitating meaningful study of effects which are dependent upon the sum of their power flows. Consideration of the effect of operating conditions includes permutations of climate, control systems (including those which engage with demand side management), grid generation mixes and building properties. Efficient Air Source Heat Pumps units have the potential to make energy and carbon emissions savings at present but their performance is sensitive to the conditions studied. In particular, appropriate control of the units can yield energy savings of around 25%. Additionally, the carbon emissions intensity of the grid is an important consideration which is explored in depth. Currently, energy requirements and carbon emissions can be reduced by the use of micro-Combined Heat and Power units. Their potential to further reduce carbon emissions diminishes if the grid is predominantly decarbonised but units with high electrical efficiencies can still save energy. The effect of the control approach which is adopted is also significant and has different effects on fuel-cell based units compared to combustion-based units. The key contribution of this work is the analysis of performance data for a selection of units operating under a range of conditions, calculated with a consistent, accurate methodology. Comparison is made between the technologies and between the effects of different operating conditions. A second significant contribution of this work is the development of the model which was used to generate the performance results. These advances allow more detailed comparative analysis of performance data in a wider range of conditions than previously possible.

A necessidade mundial de mitigação dos gases de efeito estufa (GEE) e a mobilização internacional para atingir os objetivos de redução estabelecidos pela Convenção-Quadro das Nações Unidas para Mudanças Climáticas (CQNUMC) deram abertura para que finalmente as energias renováveis pudessem ser utilizadas e aumentassem sua parcela na matriz energética mundial. No Brasil, a sólida indústria sucroalcooleira atualmente desenvolve projetos de redução de emissões de carbono no âmbito do Mecanismo de Desenvolvimento Limpo (MDL) do Protocolo de Quioto, por meio de 18 projetos baseados na geração de energia elétrica renovável excedente através da cogeração, com exportação para a rede elétrica nacional, deslocando energia marginal termelétrica de origem fóssil, em apenas 20 unidades produtoras paulistas. Neste trabalho foi projetado um cenário ideal de reduções de emissões, que considerou a adesão total de 151 usinas paulistas para a safra de 2006/2007, para cinco cenários patamares tecnológicos de cogeração, com queima de bagaco e também aproveitamento da palha. Foi utilizando os parâmetros tecnológicos elaborados pela Comissão Especial de Bioenergia do Governo do Estado de São Paulo e o fator de linha de base de 0,268 tCO2e/MWh adotado pelos projetos de MDL em operação no Estado de São Paulo. No cenário tecnológico mais conservador as emissões evitadas somariam 1.404.593 tCO2e/ano. Para o cenário ideal as emissões evitadas somam 12.199.443 tCO2e/ano. Para composição do cenário ideal também foram calculadas as emissões referentes à queima da palha da cana-de-açúcar. / The world-wide necessity of Greenhouse Gases (GHG) mitigation and the intergovernmental mobilization to reach the objectives established by the United Nations Framework on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has opened space for the renewable energy increase in the worlds energy matrix. In Brazil, the solid sugarcane industry currently develops business in the scope of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyotos Protocol, by means of 18 biomass-based projects, with renewable energy generation through bagasse cogeneration at 20 São Paulo States sugarcane production units. The projects activitys consists of increasing the efficiency in the bagasse cogeneration facilities, qualifying the units to sell surplus electricity to the national grid, avoiding the dispatch of same amount of energy produced by fossil-fuelled thermal plants to that grid. The reduced emissions are measured in carbon equivalent and can be converted into negotiable credits. The objective of this dissertation was to build a state of art scenario, calculating the potential emissions reduction through CDM projects for the sugarcane sector of São Paulo State, in which we consider the adherence of all the production units of the State to the CDM projects. The technological parameters used to elaborate the scenario were provided by the São Paulo State Government Bioenergy Special Commission and the baseline factor used of 0,268 tCO2e/MWh was that adopted by the CDM projects in operation in the State. The sugarcane database for the calculations was the production ranking provided by UNICA for the 2006/2007 season. In the most conservative scenario 131 units could avoid the emission of 1.404.593 tCO2e/year. For state of art scenario, the units could avoid 12.199.443 tCO2e/year. Also have been calculated the sugarcane straw burning emission for the sugarcane harvested in 2006/2007 season.

One technology that makes concrete without cement and does not have the associated carbon footprint is geopolymer concrete. This technology utilizes waste fly ash from power stations and mixes it with activating chemicals to form a binder with similar or better properties than cement. Not only does this technology directly reduce carbon emissions by replacing cement it also utilizes the waste bi-product from power stations and prevents it from going to landfill. Concrete is composed of coarse aggregates, sand and cementitious paste. It seemed possible to make geopolymer concrete from 100% waste. The aggregates would come from recycled concrete and hard brittle bottom ash from power stations, the sand would come from foundries and the fly ash binder would also come from the same power station as the bottom ash. All of these materials are waste and would all be dumped in landfill. Where would one find all these waste materials in one place? The industrial suburb of Kwinana outside Perth is home to a large number of industries producing all these wastes. To find products that have a specification that these materials would suit was a material with a relatively low specification, one such specification is the concrete masonry units’ specification. For this to be adopted the mix design would then have to be altered to a drier type mix without any slump. As recycling facilities do not make a range of products it was decided to crush the aggregates in the laboratory specifically for this research and to blend all the waste materials. Numerous combinations were blended, analysed and assessed to establish which blends would best suit the aims and scope of this research. Eventually three blends were selected that encompassed all the waste products. / To find the right mix design proved challenging as these masonry products generally require a mix to have zero slump. It was decided to test across all the known and analysed water to geopolymer solids ratios for each of the mixes and establish the best mix based on compressive strength, workability and slump A known mix design based on research into low calcium Class F geopolymer concrete, developed at Curtin University using natural aggregates, was applied to these selected recycled waste mix designs. The benefit was to be able to compare the results of this research to a known result. Flash setting, an unknown phenomenon in geopolymer concrete, did occur in the low water mixes, but in spite of this, geopolymer concrete was successfully manufactured. The compressive strengths were substantially lower than those of the design mix and more research is required in this regard, however an indirect relationship was observed between the amount of bottom ash and the compressive strength. The high degree of LOI (loss of ignition) in both ashes, porosity of recycled aggregates, angularity, degree of fineness of the fines and flash setting are all possible factors influencing the properties of the geopolymer concrete. More research is recommended in a number of these areas to be able to understand and develop this technology further in order to make this a practical and robust technology in the quest to find solutions to our warming planet and our changing climate.

A paradigm shift in distribution system design and planning is being led by the deregulation of the power industry and the increasing adoption of distributed generation (DG). Technology advances have made DG investments feasible by both local distribution companies (LDCs) and small power producers (SPPs). LDCs are interested in finding optimal long term plans that best serve their customers at the lowest cost. SPPs, as private entities, are concerned about maximizing their rates of return. Also keenly interested in distribution design and planning is the government, which, through an electricity regulator, strives to meet DG penetration and emissions reduction goals through policy implementations. This thesis first examines the distribution system planning problem from the LDC's perspective. An innovative hierarchical dynamic optimization model is proposed for the planning of distribution systems and the energy scheduling of units that is also capable of reconciling uncoordinated SPP investments in DG. The first stage of the two-stage framework consists of a siting-cum-period planning model that sets element sizing and commissioning dates. The second stage consists of a capacity-cum-production planning model that finalizes element capacities and energy import/export and production schedules. The proposed framework is demonstrated on a 32-bus radial distribution system. Four case studies encompassing different policy sets are also conducted, demonstrating that this model's usefulness also extends to predicting the impact of different energy policies on distribution system operation and economics. The analysis of different policy sets is further expanded upon through the proposal of a new mathematical model that approaches the distribution design problem from the regulator's perspective. Various case studies examining policies that may be used by the regulator to meet DG penetration and emissions goals, through DG investment, are constructed. A combination of feed-in-tariffs, CO$_2$ tax, and cap-and-trade mechanisms are among the policies studied. The results, in the context of Ontario, Canada and its Standard Offer Program, are discussed, with respect to achieving objectives in DG investment, participation by SPPs, consumer costs, and uncertainty in carbon market prices. In jurisdictions such as Ontario, the LDC cannot invest in its own DG capacity but must accommodate those of SPPs. With the successful implementation of DG investment incentives by the regulator, there is a potential for significant investments in DG by SPPs, which may exceed that of the LDCs ability to absorb. This thesis proposes a novel method that can be used by the regulator or LDC to fairly assess, coordinate, and approve multiple competing investments proposals while maintaining operational feasibility of the distribution system. This method uses a feedback between the LDC and SPPs to achieve maximum investor participation while adhering to the technical operational limits of the distribution system. The proposed scheme is successfully demonstrated on a 32-bus radial distribution system, where it is shown to increase SPP-DG investments and production, improve the system's voltage profile, and reduce losses.

A paradigm shift in distribution system design and planning is being led by the deregulation of the power industry and the increasing adoption of distributed generation (DG). Technology advances have made DG investments feasible by both local distribution companies (LDCs) and small power producers (SPPs). LDCs are interested in finding optimal long term plans that best serve their customers at the lowest cost. SPPs, as private entities, are concerned about maximizing their rates of return. Also keenly interested in distribution design and planning is the government, which, through an electricity regulator, strives to meet DG penetration and emissions reduction goals through policy implementations. This thesis first examines the distribution system planning problem from the LDC's perspective. An innovative hierarchical dynamic optimization model is proposed for the planning of distribution systems and the energy scheduling of units that is also capable of reconciling uncoordinated SPP investments in DG. The first stage of the two-stage framework consists of a siting-cum-period planning model that sets element sizing and commissioning dates. The second stage consists of a capacity-cum-production planning model that finalizes element capacities and energy import/export and production schedules. The proposed framework is demonstrated on a 32-bus radial distribution system. Four case studies encompassing different policy sets are also conducted, demonstrating that this model's usefulness also extends to predicting the impact of different energy policies on distribution system operation and economics. The analysis of different policy sets is further expanded upon through the proposal of a new mathematical model that approaches the distribution design problem from the regulator's perspective. Various case studies examining policies that may be used by the regulator to meet DG penetration and emissions goals, through DG investment, are constructed. A combination of feed-in-tariffs, CO$_2$ tax, and cap-and-trade mechanisms are among the policies studied. The results, in the context of Ontario, Canada and its Standard Offer Program, are discussed, with respect to achieving objectives in DG investment, participation by SPPs, consumer costs, and uncertainty in carbon market prices. In jurisdictions such as Ontario, the LDC cannot invest in its own DG capacity but must accommodate those of SPPs. With the successful implementation of DG investment incentives by the regulator, there is a potential for significant investments in DG by SPPs, which may exceed that of the LDCs ability to absorb. This thesis proposes a novel method that can be used by the regulator or LDC to fairly assess, coordinate, and approve multiple competing investments proposals while maintaining operational feasibility of the distribution system. This method uses a feedback between the LDC and SPPs to achieve maximum investor participation while adhering to the technical operational limits of the distribution system. The proposed scheme is successfully demonstrated on a 32-bus radial distribution system, where it is shown to increase SPP-DG investments and production, improve the system's voltage profile, and reduce losses.

This thesis examines the informational efficiency of the European carbon market based on the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS). The issue is approached from three different perspectives. I explore whether the volatility embedded in carbon options is a rational forecast of subsequently realized volatility. Then, I investigate if, and to what extent, new information about the structural and institutional set-up of the market impacts the carbon price dynamics. Lastly, I examine whether the European carbon market is relevant for the firm valuations of covered companies. First, perhaps because the market is new and derivatives’ trading on emission allowances has only started recently, carbon options have not yet been extensively studied. By using data on options traded on the European Climate Exchange, this thesis examines an aspect of market efficiency which has been previously overlooked. Market efficiency suggests that, conditional upon the accuracy of the option pricing model, implied volatility should be an unbiased and efficient forecast of future realized volatility (Campbell et al., 1997). Black (1976) implied volatility and implied volatility estimates directly surveyed from market participants are used in this thesis to study the information content of carbon options. Implied volatility is found to be highly informative and directionally accurate in forecasting future volatility. There is no evidence, however, that volatility embedded in carbon options is an unbiased and efficient forecast of future realized volatility. Instead, historical volatility-based forecasts are shown to contain incremental information to implied volatility, particularly for short-term forecasts. In addition, this thesis finds no evidence that directly surveyed implied volatility estimates perform better as a forecast of future volatility relative to Black’s (1976) estimates. Second, the market sensitivity to announcements about the organizational and institutional set-up of the EU ETS is re-examined. Despite their importance for the carbon price formation, demand-side announcements and announcements about the post-2012 framework have not yet been researched. By examining a very comprehensive and updated dataset of announcements, this thesis adds to the earlier works of Miclaus et al. (2008), Mansanet-Bataller and Pardo (2009) and Lepone et al. (2011). Market participants are found to rationally incorporate new information about the institutional and regulatory framework of the emissions trading scheme into the carbon price dynamics. However, they seem to be unable to accurately assess the implications of inter-temporal banking and borrowing on pricing futures contracts with different maturities. The impact of macroeconomic conditions on the market responsiveness is investigated by splitting the dataset into subsamples according to two alternative methods: 1) a simple split into pre-crisis and full-crisis time periods, and 2) according to a Bai-Perron structural break test. Evidence is found that in the context of economic slowdown and known allowances oversupply, the relationship between the carbon price and its fundamentals (institutional announcements, energy prices and extreme weather) breaks down. These findings are consistent with the arguments in Hintermann (2010), Keppler and Mansanet-Bataller (2010) and Koop and Tole (2011) that carbon price drivers change in response to the differing context of the individual trading periods. Third, the role of carbon performance in firm valuation is understudied. Since companies were not obliged to disclose their carbon emissions prior to the launch of the EU ETS, there exists little empirical evidence of the effect of carbon performance on market value. Earlier studies of the European carbon market have only focused on the impact of ETS compliance on the profitability and competitiveness of covered companies (e.g. Anger and Oberndorfer, 2008). There is also little research on how the newly available emissions data has altered the carbon performance of companies. This thesis addresses these gaps in the literature by examining the stock price reactions of British and German firms on the day of verified emissions release under the EU ETS over the period 2006 – 2011. An event study is conducted using a Seemingly Unrelated Regressions model to deal with the event clustering present in the dataset. Limited evidence is found that investors use information about the carbon performance of companies in their valuations. The information contained in the carbon emissions reports is shown to be somewhat more important for companies with high carbon-intensive operations. This thesis finds no conclusive evidence that the cap-and-trade programme has been able to provide regulated companies with enough incentives to de-carbonize their operations. The market does not punish companies which continue to emit carbon at increasing rates or reward companies which improve their carbon performance. In brief, the results of the thesis suggest that the market is not fully efficient yet. Inefficiently priced carbon options may allow for arbitrage trades in the market. The inability of investors to incorporate rules on inter-temporal banking and borrowing of allowances across the different trading periods leads to significant price reactions when there should be none. A recessionary economic environment and a known oversupply of emission allowances have led to a disconnect between the carbon price and its fundamental drivers. And, lastly, the signal embedded in the carbon price is not strong enough to invoke investor action and turn carbon performance into a standard component of investment analysis.

No description available.

The recently growing concerns of customers and governments about environmental protection and greenhouse gas reduction have forced companies to integrate the topic of environmental sustainability into their decision making. Facility location decisions are of special relevance in this respect because of their strategic nature. Furthermore, many different trade-offs must be considered, for example between operational costs and customer service. But as soon as environmental issues are concerned, other critical issues must be considered as well. Based on a case study from the petrochemical industry, this paper extends two basic facility location models and shows the impact of distribution network-design decisions on the economic and environmental performance of the company. The results show a trade-off between total (distribution) costs and transport carbon emissions. (authors' abstract)

abstract: The construction industry is becoming more aware of its impact on the environment. It has become more sensitive to how it operates and how it can reduce the carbon footprint of the construction process. This research identifies the source of and quantities of the carbon emissions created by an operating modular home fabrication plant in producing, transporting and installing modular structures. This study demonstrates how to measure the carbon footprint created in the production of a modular home. It quantifies and reports the results on a home, on a single module and on a per square foot basis. The primary conclusions of this study are: a) electricity was found to be the largest energy source used in this fabrication process; b) the modular fabrication process consumes a significant amount of electrical energy per month; c) production volume has a bearing on the carbon footprint of each home since the carbon footprint for each period is allocated to every home produced in that period; and d) transportation of fabricated modules and set-up add to the carbon footprint. Further, a carbon calculator was produced and is included with the study. The tool calculates the impact of energy consumption on the carbon footprint of a modular factory or a modular home. It may be expanded to other process driven fabrication entities. This research is valuable to developers and builders who wish to measure the carbon impact of a modular new home delivery system. The study also provides a methodology for modular home fabricators to measure the carbon footprint of their factories and factory production. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Construction 2010

abstract: The United States building sector was the most significant carbon emission contributor (over 40%). The United States government is trying to decrease carbon emissions by enacting policies, but emissions increased by approximately 7 percent in the U.S. between 1990 and 2013. To reduce emissions, investigating the factors affecting carbon emissions should be a priority. Therefore, in this dissertation, this research examine the relationship between carbon emissions and the factors affecting them from macro and micro perspectives. From a macroscopic perspective, the relationship between carbon dioxide, energy resource consumption, energy prices, GDP (gross domestic product), waste generation, and recycling waste generation in the building and waste sectors has been verified. From a microscopic perspective, the impact of non-permanent electric appliances and stationary and non-stationary occupancy has been investigated. To verify the relationships, various kinds of statistical and data mining techniques were applied, such as the Granger causality test, linear and logarithmic correlation, and regression method. The results show that natural gas and electricity prices are higher than others, as coal impacts their consumption, and electricity and coal consumption were found to cause significant carbon emissions. Also, waste generation and recycling significantly increase and decrease emissions from the waste sector, respectively. Moreover, non-permanent appliances such as desktop computers and monitors consume a lot of electricity, and significant energy saving potential has been shown. Lastly, a linear relationship exists between buildings’ electricity use and total occupancy, but no significant relationship exists between occupancy and thermal loads, such as cooling and heating loads. These findings will potentially provide policymakers with a better understanding of and insights into carbon emission manipulation in the building sector. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Civil, Environmental and Sustainable Engineering 2018