The dissertation, of limited scope, reviewed existing research on multilingualism in challenging educational contexts. The aim was to explore and determine the state of research in the area of multilingualism in educational contexts that are considered challenging, over the time period 2010 to 2020. In addition, the dissertation of limited scope also explored the benefits of multilingualism and how the current state of research influences future research through the identification of trends and gaps. The research was collected and identified through a rigorous process whereby specific search strategies were used with particular keywords. Distinct databases such as JSTOR PsycARTICLES, Academic Search Complete, and Linguistic Collection as well as other journal and Internet resources were used to obtain 34 studies relevant to the research questions of the dissertation of limited scope. The results showed that 1) research related for multilingualism in challenging contexts of education is centred around the trends of pedagogical practices of learning, first language as the language of instruction, academic achievement and the resourcefulness of multilingualism, 2) multilingualism in 3) there is great opportunity for future research in this linguistic and academic area due to the lack of research and visible gaps in the literature over the last ten years. As there has been no previous overview, the findings provide a theoretical contribution to research on multilingualism in challenging contexts. They both encourage future research in a South African context and also indicate that research in other similar global contexts should be conducted. The findings provide an overview of relevant information for any parties that may be interested in this area of multilingualism and serve as a reference point for further research. / Dissertation (MEd)--University of Pretoria, 2020. / Educational Psychology / MEd / Unrestricted

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Sensory integration techniques are a common treatment procedure among occupational therapists. The goal is to "apply" input that competes with input from problem behavior. Although this is a commonly recommended intervention, there is limited empirical evaluation with adults with intellectual disabilities. Therefore, we evaluated the effectiveness of occupational therapist-suggested sensory stimuli on the automatically maintained problem behavior of adults. Specifically, we compared the effects of non-contingent access to sensory stimuli and non-contingent access to highly preferred stimuli on the rate of problem behavior. Results suggested that, relative to highly preferred stimuli, sensory stimuli had either a limited effect on problem behavior, or in some cases, were correlated with increases in problem behavior. This suggests that sensory stimuli may not produce the same automatic stimulation as problem behavior. We will discuss implications for treatment, including methods for better identifying stimuli for use in the treatment of automatically maintained problem behavior.

Children with autism often experience substantial delays in the development of play behavior. Interventions to teach play skills are often complicated by challenging behavior and stereotypy. Previous research has demonstrated a potential relationship between stereotypy, challenging behavior and play in children with autism. However, few research-based methods for addressing stereotypy and challenging during play interventions are available to practitioners. The purpose of this study was to reduce stereotypy and challenging behavior during a play intervention for five children with autism by adding an abolishing operation component to a common research-based procedure for teaching play skills. The abolishing effect is one of several possible effects of MOs. An abolishing operation is any stimuli or series of events that reduces the value of a particular reinforcer. If an individual has unrestricted access to a particular reinforcer for an extended period of time that stimuli may eventually lose its reinforcing value. Incorporation of the abolishing operation concept into play interventions may allow practitioners to effectively reduce the reinforcing value of stereotypy prior to beginning a play intervention. If the reinforcing value of stereotypy is reduced, then the child may engage in less stereotypy and less challenging behavior when stereotypy is interrupted. By reducing these interfering behaviors, it was hypothesized that a research-based play intervention would be more effective and efficient. The effects of two conditions were compared. In one condition (abolishing operation condition) the child is allowed to engage in stereotypy freely prior to the implementation of an intervention targeting play skills. In the second condition the same play intervention was implemented without the prior free play period. The levels of functional play, symbolic play, stereotypy, and challenging behavior were compared across these two conditions. Results show decreased levels of stereotypy and challenging behavior and increased levels of functional play in the abolishing operation condition. Symbolic play did not occur following either condition. / text

Objectives: There is body of evidence that suggests parents who have a child with a learning disability experience increased stress levels. In addition, research has found a bidirectional relationship between parental stress and child challenging behaviour. Other investigations in this area have found parental stress to be a significant predictor of intervention outcome, and it has been suggested that it should be targeted prior to any child focused intervention. The aim of the current study is to examine the effectiveness of an intervention that targets both parental stress and child challenging behaviour, in families who have a child with a learning disability Design & Method: The study employed a questionnaire based, quantitative, within and between groups methodology. The design included two groups, both parents of children with learning disabilities. Group one, attended three sessions targeting parental stress and three on child challenging behaviour and completed measures on parental stress, mood, coping and child behaviour. Group two, received ‘treatment as normal’ and completed the same measures. Results: Correlations were conducted to look at the relationship between parental stress, coping, mood and child behaviour. The results partially supported a relationship between parental stress, child challenging behaviour and coping. The ANOVA revealed a significant decrease in anxiety scores for the intervention group over time. The results provide some support the effectiveness of the sessions in reducing parental stress but not child challenging behaviour. Conclusions: The findings provide some support for the use of a brief intervention for parents who have a child with a learning disability. The results indicate high levels of stress and child challenging behaviour, which has been linked to increased risk of mental health problems in both child and parents. The current intervention may be appropriative for families with lower levels of stress and behaviour problems, and alternative approaches may be more suitable to families with chronic difficulties.

Introduction: Children with a learning disability (LD) and/or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are known to suffer from significantly more sleep problems, anxiety and challenging behaviour (CB) than typically developing children, yet little is known about the relationships between these factors in the child LD/ASD population. Aims and Hypotheses: The aim of the current study was to examine the relationships between sleep problems, anxiety and CB in children with LD and/or ASD. It was hypothesised that there would be differences between levels of sleep problems, anxiety and CB in children with LD alone, LD and ASD, and ASD alone. It was further hypothesised that there would be significant positive correlations between the three factors and that sleep problems and anxiety would predict a significant amount of the variance in levels of CB. Method: Postal questionnaires were returned by parents of one hundred and sixty seven parents of children with LD and/or ASD. Questionnaires consisted of parental report measures of sleep problems, anxiety and CB, in addition to general demographic variables. Results and Discussion: Statistical analysis revealed no difference between groups (LD, LD+ASD, ASD) in relation to sleep problems, however, some differences were found between the groups in relation to anxiety and CB. Correlational analysis revealed significant positive associations between the three factors. A hierarchical multiple regression showed that medication, sleep problems and anxiety accounted for 42% of the variance in CB, with a large effect size. These findings suggest that the relationships between sleep, anxiety and CB found in the TD child and adult LD/ASD populations are also evident in the child LD/ASD population and that these relationships should be considered during clinical practice, particularly in the case of CB interventions where sleep problems and/or anxiety are also present.

The focus of this study was to explore the impact of challenging behaviors on Applied Behaviors Analysis treatment in Autism Spectrum Disorder. The prevalence of ASD is on the rise, so it is important that we understand how patients are responding to treatment. In this study, we cluster patients (N=854) based on their eight observed challenging behaviors using k-means, a machine learning algorithm, and then perform a multiple linear regression analysis to find significant differences between average exemplars mastered. The goal of this study was to expand the research in the area of ABA treatment for ASD and to help provide more insight helpful for creating personalized therapeutic interventions with maximum efficacy, minimum time and minimum cost for individuals.

Nonemergency transportation drivers play a critical role in helping individuals with Intellectual Disabilities (ID) gain access to community integration opportunities. Challenging behaviors can limit access to enrichment opportunities and possibly increase the likelihood that individuals with ID will be isolated from community enrichment activities. The purpose of this study was to determine if positive behavior support training improved nonemergency transportation drivers' perceptions of challenging behaviors displayed by individuals with ID. For purposes of this study, perception was defined as staff (driver) beliefs about the causes of challenging behavior. A convenience sample of 52 nonemergency transportation drivers was chosen from a Logisticare provider list using local zip codes. Data were collected using the Challenging Behavior Attribution Scale (CHABA) before and after training using the Positive Behavior Support Curriculum 2nd Edition. A 2-way ANOVA revealed no statistically significant differences in perception before or after training. Analysis of the data indicated that training had no impact on driver perception of challenging behavior. The drivers who participated in this study appeared to have positive perceptions of challenging behavior, and, as a result, no statistically significant results were found. Perhaps the results of this study might lead community organizations that support individuals with ID to include transportation drivers in team meetings when there are concerns regarding challenging behavior. The drivers' positive perceptions regarding challenging behaviors may be an asset to support teams in developing positive behavior support strategies that improve the quantity of life for persons with ID.

Pre-school aged children experience challenging behaviors at a relatively common rate. Research shows that approximately 10–25 % of preschool-aged children engage in challenging behaviors to a greater degree than would be expected for their age (Lavigne, Gibbons, Christoffel, Arend, Rosenbaum, Binns, Sawon, Sobel & Isaacs, 1996). Problem behaviors are often the result of a child not following a typical developmental trajectory. Atypical development appears when a child either lags behind or jumps ahead of typical peer progress in physical, cognitive, behavioral, and social development or in adaptive life skills. When children with challenging behaviors are left untreated, their everyday functioning can become significantly impaired, and many will require more intensive supports and services over time (Kauffman, Mock & Simpson, 1996). The presence of chronic challenging behaviors negatively impacts important aspects of a child's development and puts him or her risk for a number of adverse circumstances over time, including a dysfunctional family life, conflicts within interpersonal relationships, alcohol and drug use, physical and sexual assault, suicide, academic failure, unsuccessful employment, and involvement with the justice system (Boulter & Rickwood, 2013; Durand & Hieneman, 2008). The purpose of this study was to develop a better understanding of the interventions parents try for their children. Including their thoughts, feelings and perceptions of each intervention. Previous research has provided insight into factors that influence parents’ help-seeking process and how parents begin the help seeking process (i.e., seeking formal or informal support). However, little is known about their thoughts, perceptions, and feelings towards the different types of interventions used and how they’ve affected their children's problem behaviors. Qualitative methods were used to better understand their help-seeking journeys. The experience of 5 mothers raising children with complex and challenging behaviors were captured through open-ended interviews in this study. The results of this study found several notable themes to emerge from the interviews of mothers raising children with atypical development. Specifically, several mothers reported a typical pregnancy and early development. Participants described a difficult first year with feeding their child, their child not meeting developmental milestones and having several unique quirks. Several parents also described their infant as experiencing higher rates of sickness when compared to other infants. Parents also described the age in which problem behaviors were first identified in their child, who first became concerned with their child’s behavior and their initial help seeking steps. Parents described behaviors of concerns including; difficulty eating, delayed speech and motor development and restricted interests. Themes emerged that described the parent’s process in seeking out early interventions for their child which included the evaluation process and the therapies that were first recommended to them. At the conclusion of the evaluation, parents were typically given a diagnosis. Themes emerged that discussed the parent’s initial reaction to the diagnosis and their self-driven research to find answers. All but one parent discussed taking their child to their pediatrician when they first had concerns. Through the school years, parents discussed the difficulties they faced in finding school based interventions and supports for their child. Some of the interventions included; medications, behavioral therapies, and occupational and speech therapy. With medication specifically, parents discussed their experience in trying to find the right medication. This study provides a better understanding of the experiences of mothers raising children with complex and challenging behaviors. It also provides information on how practitioners can approach parents when and if they have concerns with a child’s development. In addition, data from this study supports the needs for increased advocacy, supports and services for these families.

Preference is commonly incorporated into educational interventions for individuals with developmental disabilities. Preference assessments have a solid research base indicating that they are more reliable tools for finding preference than the subjective opinions of parents and teachers. As evidence-based practices have been emphasized, the preference assessment has been a regular component of interventions and instructional programs for the population. Along with the utility, research regarding the assessment and relevant variables has also increased. However, many questions still exist and wait for more inquiry. One of the practical issues is the occurrence of challenging behaviors of individuals with disabilities during preference assessments. Highly occurring challenging behavior during an assessment may interrupt the procedure and lead to inaccurate results about the individual’s preference. That may ultimately affect the effectiveness of the intervention or instructional program. Using a procedure that does not evoke challenging behavior is necessary for accurate results as well as ethically responsible. Therefore this study examined the relation between functions of challenging behavior and three commonly used preference assessment procedures: Paired-Stimulus (PS), Multiple-Stimulus without Replacement (MSWO), and Free-Operant (FO). This study had two phases: Functional analyses and preference assessments. First, functional analyses were conducted to identify the function of challenging behaviors. The participants were nine children with developmental disabilities whose functional analysis results indicated their challenging behavior was maintained by access to tangible items (5), attention (2), and escape (2) reinforcers. After identifying the behaviors’ functions, preference assessments were implemented to compare the rates of the challenging behaviors. Each preference assessment format was conducted 5 times, in a random order for each participant. The results of the study demonstrate that the occurrence of challenging behavior with different functions was different depending on procedure formats. This suggests that there would be a relation between functions of challenging behavior and preference assessment formats. In other words, depending on the function of challenging behavior, the assessment procedure may act as a trigger evoking the challenging behavior. This study discussed practical guidance to prevent challenging behavior during preference assessments. / text