The release of harmful chemicals into the Earth system is a threat to the survival of human societies and ecosystems. There are different types of harmful chemicals, some possess characteristics that are more harmful than others. Chemicals causing local effects have a short-term impact on the Earth system, whereas others are persistent in nature. The second becomes a global pollution issue because these substances accumulate, resulting in cascades through the Earth system. The chemical pollution issue is a scale challenge, meaning that the pollution issue occurs within and across levels and scales. Chemical pollution is not treated as a scale challenge in the decision-making process today. In the literature it is stated that chemical pollution is usually studied by focusing on single institutions, which hinders the possibility to investigate the linkages between the institutions affecting the scale dynamics. In this study the scale and cross-scale perspective was used to identify institutions that are affecting the work for a toxin free environment on a national and municipality level in Sweden. Governance Architecture was used as an analytical tool to investigate the key hindering and facilitating governance mechanisms to achieve sustainable chemical management in Sweden from a cross-scale perspective. The analytical tool was based on the Earth System Governance theory and scale dynamics. Sweden was used as a case to apply this tool. Two methods were used to gather empirics: literature analysis and in-depth interviews. The findings reveal an overrepresentation of the hindering factors being a result of a scale or a policy gap issue. These gaps are created by the lack of interdisciplinarity in the decision-making process, and the current legislation and politics which influences the implementation of the strategies on the different institutional levels. To overcome these hinders the current strategies and legislation needs to be in collaboration. This study contributes to empiric development within policy studies on how the chemical pollution issue needs to be conceptually formulated to achieve a toxin free environment within and cross-scales. It also contributes to method development by addressing the gap of including several institutions in cross-scale studies.

The contamination of the environment, accidental or intentional, in particular with chemical toxins such as industrial chemicals and chemical warfare agents has increased public fear. There is a critical requirement for the continuous detection of toxins present at very low levels in the environment. Indeed, some ultra-sensitive analytical techniques already exist, for example chromatography and mass spectroscopy, which are approved by the US Environmental Protection Agency for the detection of toxins. However, these techniques are limited to the detection of known toxins. Cellular expression of genomic and proteomic biomarkers in response to toxins allows monitoring of known as well as unknown toxins using Polymerase Chain Reaction and Enzyme Linked Immunosensor Assays. However, these molecular assays allow only the endpoint (extracellular) detection and use labels such as fluorometric, colorimetric and radioactive, which increase chances of uncertainty in detection. Additionally, they are time, labor and cost intensive. These technical limitations are unfavorable towards the development of a biosensor technology for continuous detection of toxins. Federal agencies including the Departments of Homeland Security, Agriculture, Defense and others have urged the development of a detect-to-protect class of advanced biosensors, which enable environmental surveillance of toxins in resource-limited settings. In this study a Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) immunosensor, aka a SERS-linked immunosensor assay (SLISA), has been developed. Colloidal silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) were used to design a flexible SERS immunosensor. The SLISA proof-of-concept biosensor was validated by the measurement of a dose dependent expression of RAD54 and HSP70 proteins in response to H2O2 and UV. A prototype microchip, best suited for SERS acquisition, was fabricated using an on-chip SLISA to detect RAD54 expression in response to H2O2. A dose-response relationship between H2O2 and RAD54 is established and correlated with EPA databases, which are established for human health risk assessment in the events of chemical exposure. SLISA outperformed ELISA by allowing RISE (rapid, inexpensive, simple and effective) detection of proteins within 2 hours and 3 steps. It did not require any label and provided qualitative information on antigen-antibody binding. SLISA can easily be translated to a portable assay using a handheld Raman spectrometer and it can be used in resource-limited settings. Additionally, this is the first report to deliver Ag NPs using TATHA2, a fusogenic peptide with cell permeability and endosomal rupture release properties, for rapid and high levels of Ag NPs uptake into yeast without significant toxicity, prerequisites for the development of the first intracellular SERS immunosensor.