What are the biblical cherubim? In the Hebrew Bible, the physical appearance and cultic role of the cherubim are never explicitly elucidated. Largely, the authors assume their audience is familiar with the form and function of these heavenly beings. Yet the portrayal of the cherubim varies from text to text and, sometimes, we are given conflicting information. Previous studies of the cherubim have placed too great an emphasis on archaeological and etymological data. This thesis presents a new synthetic study which prioritises the evidence supplied by the biblical texts. Biblical exegesis, using literary and historical-critical methods, forms the large part of the investigation (chapter 2). The findings arising from the exegetical discussion provide the basis upon which comparison with etymological and archaeological data is made (chapters 3 and 4). It is argued that, with the exception of the book of Ezekiel, the biblical texts are quite consistent in their portrayal of the cherubim. Cherubim are intimately connected with the manifestation of Yahweh and have an apotropaic function in relation to sacred space. They are envisaged with one face and one set of wings. Ps 18:11 = 2 Sam 22:11 suggests that they are quadrupedal. The traditions in the final form of Ezekiel 1-11 mark a shift in the conception of the biblical cherubim. Physically, the cherubim are transmogrified and become enigmatic beasts with four faces and four wings. Their function also changes. Depicted elsewhere as menacing guardians, in Ezekiel they become agents of praise. The results suggest that traditions envisaging the cherubim as tutelary winged quadrupeds were supplanted by traditions that conceived of them as more enigmatic, obeisant beings. In the portrayal of the cherubim in Ezekiel and Chronicles, we can detect signs of a conceptual shift that prefigures the description of the cherubim in post-biblical texts, such as The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice and the Enochic texts.

The Hebrew words (cherub) and (seraph) are well-known terms, but it is unclear exactly to what they refer. Many sources agree that the word cherub refers to a composite creature such as a griffin, sphinx or winged bull. Less research has been done on the meaning of the word seraph. This study employs a textual and iconographic analysis to attempt to reconstruct a picture of what the authors of the Hebrew Bible had in mind when they wrote about cherubim and seraphim. Every text in the Hebrew Bible mentioning one of these words is listed, translated and analysed with the aid of various sources. Special attention is paid to texts that discuss cherubim or seraphim at length, such as the description of the Ark of the Covenant in Exodus, the visions of cherubim in Ezekiel and the reference to seraphim in Isaiah. Artefacts from certain cultures and dating within a specific timeframe, depicting composite creatures, are studied and analysed. Possible depictions of seraphim are identified, using information from the texts of the Hebrew Bible and through analogy with widely-accepted depictions of cherubim. The study contends that where cherubim were seen as winged composite creatures with parts of two or more of the eagle, lion, ox/bull and human, seraphim was a term used to describe winged composite creatures including parts of the serpent. It is also argued that seraphim are generally not associated with dragonlike composite creatures because of the negative connotations that modern symbolism has of snakes and dragons, and that the ancient Hebrews did not necessarily share this view. / Afrikaans: Die Hebreeuse woorde (gerub) en (seraf) is bekende terme, maar dit is onduidelik waarna hulle verwys. Baie bronne is dit eens dat die woord gerub verwys na ‘n gedierte met buitengewone en verskillende saamgestelde liggaamsdele soos ‘n griffioen, ‘n sfinks of ‘n gevleulde bul. Minder navorsing is al gedoen oor die betekenis van die woord seraf. In hierdie studie word ‘n tekstuele en ikonografiese analise benut om te poog om ‘n beeld te rekonstrueer van wat die skrywers van die Hebreeuse Bybel in gedagte gehad het toe hulle geskryf het oor gerubs en serafs. Elke teks in die Hebreeuse Bybel wat een van hierdie woorde gebruik, word gelys, vertaal en geanaliseer deur ander bronne ook te benut. Spesiale aandag word gegee aan tekste wat breedvoerig oor óf gerubs óf serafs handel, soos die beskrywing van die Verbondsark in Eksodus, en die visioene van gerubs in Esegiël en van serafs in Jesaja. Artefakte van bepaalde kulture en wat binne ‘n sekere tydraam gedateer kan word, wat diere uit saamgestelde dele uitbeeld, word bestudeer en geanaliseer. Moontlike uitbeeldings van serafs word geïdentifiseer deur gebruik te maak van inligting in tekste van die Hebreeuse Bybel en deur middel van analogie met algemeen aanvaarde uitbeeldings van gerubs. Die studie beoog om aan te dui dat waar die gerubs beskou was as gevleuelde gediertes bestaande uit saamgestelde gedeeltes met twee of meer dele van ‘n arend, ‘n leeu, bul en mens, verwys die term seraf gewoonlik na ‘n gevleuelde gedierte wat dele van ‘n slang bevat. Dit word ook geargumenteer dat serafs nie algemeen met ‘n draakagtige gevleulde gedierte geassosieer is nie weens die negatiewe konnotasies wat geheg word aan slange en drake in moderne simbolisme en dat die antieke Hebreërs nie noodwendig hierdie beskouing gedeel het nie. / Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Ancient Languages / MA / Unrestricted

This thesis is the first modern joint study of biblical Cherubim and Seraphim. I begin by setting out the recent history of their interpretation, before taking each of the biblical texts in turn. Chapter 1 looks at the references to Cherubim in Ezekiel. I argue that the Cherubim in Ezek. 1-11 are based upon the two large Cherubim in the sanctuary in Jerusalem. I investigate the different traditions represented by LXX and MT versions of Ezek. 28 and identify a tradition which may account for the MT of this chapter. Chapter 2 covers the other descriptions of living Cherubim in the biblical texts in Gen. 3 and Ps. 18. I argue for a conscious link with the Jerusalem Temple in both texts but for their independence from each other. All the references to Cherubim in the Temple and the Tabernacle are looked at in Chapter 3, and I offer a radical re-imagining of the two large Cherubim in the Solomonic Temple and on the Kapporeth in the Mosaic Tabernacle. In Chapter 4 I question the validity of translating the Cherubim Formula as “enthroned upon the Cherubim”, and offer an alternative translation which makes reference to all the Cherubim mentioned in the text. In Chapter 5, looking at the references to saraph, I follow Joines and others in arguing for a serpentine form for the Seraphim, but argue that this identity was forgotten at an early stage of the textual transmission, and that they were then seen as part of Yhwh’s heavenly host. Finally, I argue that the role of Cherubim and Seraphim is similar, being primarily apotropaic, but that both are associated with theophany and, less frequently, with heavenly worship.

Many African Independent Churches emerged during the colonial era in central Kenya and western Nigeria. At times they were opposed by government officials and missionaries. Most scholars have limited the field of enquiry to the flash-points of this encounter, thereby emphasizing the relationship at its most severe. This study questions current assumptions about the encounter which have derived from these studies, arguing that both government and missionary officials in Kenya and Nigeria exhibited a broader range of perspectives and responses to African Independent Churches. To characterize them as mainly hostile to African Independent Churches is inaccurate. This study also explores the various encounters between African Independent Churches and African politicians, clergymen, and local citizens. While some scholars have discussed the positive role of Africans in encouraging the growth of independent Christianity, this study will discuss the history in greater depth and complexity. The investigation will show the importance of understanding the encounter on both a local and national level, and the relationships between the two. It is taken for granted that European officials had authority over African leaders, but in regard to this topic many Africans possessed a largely unrecognized ability to influence and shape European perceptions of new religious movements. Finally, this thesis will discuss how African Independent Churches sometimes provoked negative responses from others through confrontational missionary methods, caustic rhetoric, intimidation and even violence. These three themes resurface throughout the history of the encounter and illustrate how current assumptions can be reinterpreted. This thesis suggests the necessity of expanding the primary scholarly focuses, as well as altering the language and basic assumptions of the previous histories of the encounter.