付記する学位プログラム名: 霊長類学・ワイルドライフサイエンス・リーディング大学院 / 京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(理学) / 甲第23746号 / 理博第4836号 / 新制||理||1691(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院理学研究科生物科学専攻 / (主査)教授 平田 聡, 教授 伊谷 原一, 教授 村山 美穂 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

While the gestural communication of apes is widely recognised as intentional and flexible, their vocal communication still remains considered as mostly genetically determined and emotionally bound. Trying to limit the direct projections of linguistic concepts, that are far from holding a unified view on what constitute human language, this thesis presents a detailed description of the pant-grunt vocalisation usage and development in the chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) of the Budongo forest, Uganda. Pant-grunts are one of the most social vocalisations of the chimpanzee vocal repertoire and are always given from a subordinate individual to a dominant. The question of how such a signal is used and develops is critical for our understanding of chimpanzee social and vocal complexity in an ontogenetical and phylogenetical perpective. Results suggest that pant-grunt vocalisations can be used in a flexible way, both in their form and usage within a social group. More specifically, chimpanzees seemed to take into account the number and identity of surrounding individuals before producing these vocalisations. At the acoustic level, pant-grunts seem to be very variable vocalisations that corresponded to different social situations commonly encountered. Grunts are one of the first vocalisations produced by babies but they are not first produced in social contexts. Although some modifications of the social grunts form and usage could not entirely be attributed to maturation only, the role of the mother seemed to be restricted. Her direct influence was perhaps more visible in the rhythmic patterns of chorusing events. Taken together, this thesis suggests that chimpanzee vocalisations are more flexible in their usage, production and acquisition than previously thought and might therefore be more similar to gestural communication.

A central issue in the study of primate communication is the extent to which individuals adjust their behaviour to the attention and signals of others, and manipulate others’ attention to communicate about external events. I investigated whether 13 chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes spp.), 11 bonobos (Pan paniscus), and 7 orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus) followed conspecific attention and led others to distal locations. Individuals were presented with a novel stimulus, to test if they would lead a conspecific to detect it in two experimental conditions. In one the conspecific faced the communicator, while another required the communicator to first attract the attention of a conspecific. All species followed conspecific attention, but only bonobos in conditions that required geometric attention following and that the communicator first attract the conspecific‘s attention. There was a clear trend for the chimpanzees to selectively produce a stimulus directional ‘hunching’ posture when viewing the stimulus in the presence of a conspecific rather than alone (the comparison was statistically non-significant, but very closely approached significance [p = 0.056]), and the behaviour consistently led conspecifics to look towards the stimulus. An observational study showed that ‘hunching’ only occurred in the context of attention following. Some chimpanzees and bonobos consistently and selectively combined functionally different behaviours (consisting of sequential auditory-stimulus-directional-behaviours), when viewing the stimulus in the presence of a non-attentive conspecific, although at species level this did not yield significant effects. While the design did not eliminate the possibility of a social referencing motive (“look and help me decide how to respond”), the coupling of auditory cues followed by directional cues towards a novel object, is consistent with a declarative and social referential interpretation of non-verbal deixis. An exploratory study, which applied the ‘Social Attention Hypothesis’ (that individuals accord and receive attention as a function of dominance) to attention following, showed that chimpanzees were more likely to follow the attention of the dominant individual. Overall, the results suggest that the paucity of observed referential behaviours in apes may owe to the inconspicuousness and multi-faceted nature of the behaviours.

I tested two pairs of captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in the informed forager paradigm: a subordinate saw the location of hidden bait, and then searched with a naïve dominant. This paradigm has tested what subjects know about others' states of knowledge, but my focus was to determine how subjects used different movement types and different gaze types to modify their competitive tactics. In particular, I investigated whether chimpanzees follow opponents' gaze to gain information. Learning more about how primates use visual information to predict others' behaviour can shed light on the continuing debate over to what degree apes possess theory of mind capacities. Previous published studies in this paradigm included narratives of ignorant competitors exploiting informed subjects by following their movement and gaze, and informed subjects avoided this exploitation by walking away from hidden food. The subordinate's behaviour can be considered tactical deception, which is a good place to seek strong evidence of second-order intentionality. Analyses with descriptive statistics, however, fail to capture the complexity of these interactions, which range from single decision-making points to larger patterns of following and misleading. I introduced a novel method of statistical analysis, cross correlations, that enabled me to examine behavioural patterns quantitatively that previous authors have only been able to describe in narrative form. Though previous studies on chimpanzees' understanding of gaze found that they were unable to use (human-given) gaze cues to locate hidden food, the subjects I tested followed their conspecific opponent's gaze, and used information gained from the gaze interaction to modify their own movement towards the hidden bait. Dominants adjusted their physical following of the subordinates as the interaction progressed, which reflected their changed states of knowledge. Subordinates used their movement and gaze differentially to manipulate dominants' behaviour, by withholding information and by recruiting towards a less-preferred bait.

Cumulative culture is rare, if not altogether absent in non-human species. At the foundation of cumulative learning is the ability to flexibly modify, relinquish or build upon prior behaviours to make them more productive or efficient. Within the primate literature, a failure to optimise solutions in this way is often proposed to derive from low-fidelity copying of witnessed behaviours, sub-optimal social learning heuristics, or a lack of relevant socio-cognitive adaptations. However, humans can also be markedly inflexible in their behaviours, perseverating with, or becoming fixated on outdated or inappropriate responses. Humans show differential patterns of flexibility as a function of cognitive load, exhibiting difficulties with inhibiting suboptimal behaviours when there are high demands on working memory. Here I present a series of studies on captive chimpanzees which show that not only is inhibitory control compromised in chimpanzees, but indicate ape behavioural conservatism may be underlain by similar constraints as in humans; chimpanzees show relatively little conservatism when behavioural optimisation involves the inhibition of a well-established but simple solution, or the addition of a simple modification to a well-established but complex solution. In contrast, when behavioural optimisation involves the inhibition of a well-established but complex solution, and especially when the alternative solution is also complex, chimpanzees show evidence of behavioural conservatism. I propose that conservatism is linked to behavioural complexity, potentially mediated by cognitive resource availability, and may be an important factor in the evolution of cumulative culture.

Great ape gesture is an elaborate, flexible system of intentional communication. It has been suggested that human language originated in gesture, thus, the gestural communication of great apes is of great interest for questions on the origin of language. To date, systematic studies of great ape gesture have been limited to restricted captive settings, supplemented by the study of a few specific gestures in wild populations. To address questions about gestural communication from an evolutionary perspective it is necessary to extend the systematic study of gesture into a wild ape population. I therefore undertook a 22-month study of gesture in the wild Sonso chimpanzee community in Budongo, Uganda. Sonso chimpanzees employ a large repertoire of species-typical gestures in intentional communication; a proportion of this repertoire appears to be ape-typical, as would be expected with a biologically given trait. Chimpanzees can acquire new behavioural patterns through imitation; however, this apparently does not represent a significant means of acquiring gestures. Gesturing was employed regularly in an intentional manner from the end of the first year, and was used by chimpanzees of all ages to communicate across a range of contexts, including the evolutionarily urgent context of consortship. Immature chimpanzees used a wide range of gestures, which they combined into rapid sequences. With maturity, use of the repertoire was ‘tuned’ to focus on the most effective gestures, which were then used individually. Despite the evidence for referential pointing in captive chimpanzees, there was little evidence for the regular use of it in wild chimpanzees. Gestures were used to communicate a range of imperative requests that regulated social behaviour. Chimpanzee gestures vary from the ambiguous to the highly specific in meaning; and, while gestures were used flexibly, they tended to be associated with a single dominant meaning.

Cercopithecus monkeys are a species-rich radiation where interspecific mating leads to novel phenotypes due to pelage color and pattern diversity within the genus. The goals of this thesis were to (1) test a new method for studying color objectively in wild arboreal primates, and (2) apply a phenotypic hybrid index (PHI) to known individuals of a hybrid zone between C. ascanius and C. mitis in Gombe National Park, Tanzania through the use of digital photography. I scored seven pelage character states as 0 (C. mitis), 0.25 (mitis-like), 0.50 (intermediate), 0.75 (ascanius-like), or 1 (C. ascanius). Photos indicate most phenotypic hybrids express a white nose spot, but all other regions of pelage color and pattern are variable, and an assortment of hybrid phenotypes are seen at Gombe. Results indicate it is currently not possible to extend parameters for assessing color objectively with RGB values, but numerical non-RGB methods show promise. / Includes bibliography. / Thesis (M.A.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2016. / FAU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Collection

In this thesis, I explore two subjects of importance to the study of cultural evolution and cumulative culture; behavioural flexibility in chimpanzees, and social transmission in human children. In Chapter 1, I give an overview of current literature on the cognitive requirements of cumulative culture, with a focus on behavioural flexibility as a capacity which facilitates cumulative culture. I also explore a current discussion in the field of cultural evolution; namely the debate between "standard" and cultural attraction-based approaches to the study of cultural evolution. Chapter 2 is an experimental investigation of the capacity of chimpanzees to respond flexibly to a changing foraging task. This study found that chimpanzees did alter their behaviour, but to a limited degree. In Chapter 3 I provide the same artificial foraging task to two further groups of chimpanzees, at a sanctuary in Zambia. This study again found that chimpanzees altered their behaviour in response to task constraints, but also found a significant difference in performance between the two groups tested. Chapter 4 explores one potential factor which may contribute to these group differences; social tolerance. Data on social tolerance from all three groups of chimpanzees is presented. In Chapter 5, I turn to another key factor in the study of culture and also address the cultural attraction approach, by conducting a transmission chain study of four- to eight-year-old human children, comparing the transmission of a symbolic and non-symbolic image. I found that neither image was reliably transmitted along transmission chains. Finally, in Chapter 6, I discuss the findings of the thesis, and suggest that future work considers multiple demographic groups, whether this means the inclusion of multiple groups of apes in studies of non-human primate cognition, or the consideration of how cultural behaviours might be transformed when transmitted by human children rather than adults.

Das Leben in Gruppen beinhaltet neben vielen Vorteilen auch zahlreiche Nachteile. Gruppenmitglieder konkurrieren über dieselben begrenzten Ressourcen oder verfolgen unterschiedliche Ziele. Während eines Interessenkonfliktes durchläuft jeder Konkurrent einen Entscheidungsprozeß, in dessen Zentrum die Frage steht, ob es sich lohnt für eine bestimmte Ressource zu kämpfen. Dabei muß einbezogen werden, daß aggressive Auseinandersetzungen Kosten verursachen. Diese Kosten können zum einen in Aggressionskosten, z.B. ein erhöhtes Verletzungsrisiko oder hohen Energieverbrauch, und zum anderen in Sozialkosten, z.B. die Störung kooperativer Beziehungen oder Streßreaktionen, aufgeteilt werden. Die unter dem Begriff Konfliktmanagement zusammengefaßten Verhaltensweisen helfen Konfliktkosten zu verringern. So können in Interessenkonflikten Aggression vermieden, deren Stärke gedämpft und soziale Konsequenzen verringert werden. Konfliktmanagement kann vor (pre-conflict management), während (peri-conflict management) und nach (post-conflict management) dem Auftreten von Aggression eingesetzt werden. Die Hypothese, die einem optimalen Konfliktmanagement zu Grunde liegt, ist daß der Nutzen eines Konfliktes seine Kosten übersteigen muß, wobei der Profit (Nutzen – Kosten) aus dem Konflikt maximiert wird. Vereinfachend nenne ich aggressive Auseinandersetzungen von nun an Konflikte. Das Konfliktmanagement von freilebenden Schimpansen (Pan troglodytes verus) wurde im Taï National Park, Côte d’Ivoire (Westafrika), untersucht. Von 1071 beobachteten Konflikten, die ich während ganztägiger Beobachtungen an 4 männlichen und 11 weiblichen Fokustieren gesammelt habe, wurden 876 zwischen erwachsenen Schimpansen beider Geschlechter analysiert. Multivariate Analysemethoden wurden angewandt, um die entscheidenden Faktoren des Entscheidungsprozesses bei Konflikten aufzuspüren, während überwiegend Paarstatistik für einfaktorielle Analysen verwandt wurde. Dominanzbeziehungen können den Zugang zu Ressourcen regulieren und damit den Ausbruch von Aggression verhindern (pre-conflict management). Frühere Studien haben gezeigt, daß häufig lineare Rangordnungen unter männlichen, nicht aber unter weiblichen Schimpansen bestehen. Die vorliegende Arbeit konnte hingegen eine lineare Rangordnung auch unter den Weibchen der Taï Schimpansen nachweisen, welche auf Grußlauten der untergeordneten Weibchen gerichtet an die Dominanten beruhte (Wittig & Boesch, 2003a). Im Nahrungskontext waren die Taï Weibchen untereinander direkter Konkurrenz (contest competition) ausgesetzt. Dieser Wettstreit wurde intensiver, sobald eine Nahrungsquelle monopolisierbar war oder die Anzahl von Konkurrentinnen anstieg. Der Rang in der Hierarchie unter den Weibchen war abhängig vom Gewinn der Wettstreite aber unabhängig vom Alter. Warum zwischen einigen Weibchen keine Begrüßungen beobachtet wurden, konnte nicht mit dem Fehlen sozio-positiver Beziehungen erklärt werden. Ein Vergleich zwischen Populationen von Schimpansen zeigte Unterschiede in der Nahrungskonkurrenz, dem Raubdruck und der Beobachtungszeit. Diese Faktoren könnten der Grund für die unterschiedlichen Dominanzbeziehungen unter den Weibchen sein. Anschließend untersuchte ich Variablen, die darüber entscheiden, ob und wie intensiv Individuen kämpfen. Dazu erweiterte ich das Relational Model (de Waal, 1996), um die gesamte Dynamik des Entscheidungsprozesses bei Taï Schimpansen beschreiben zu können. Das erweiterte Relational Model basiert auf der Annahme, daß der zu erwartende Profit den Ausbruch von Aggression bestimmt (Wittig & Boesch, 2003b). Schimpansen beider Geschlechter kämpften häufiger um Ressourcen, die von besonderer Bedeutung für sie waren: Nahrung für Weibchen und sozialer Rang für Männchen. Schimpansen benutzten zwei Strategien, die auf ihre Wahrscheinlichkeit diesen Kampf zu gewinnen zurückgeführt wurden. Die Wahrscheinlichkeit einen Kampf zu gewinnen wurde durch die Dominanzbeziehung der Gegner bestimmt. Dominante Angreifer initiierten längere und intensivere Kämpfe, aber bemühten sich Sozialkosten zu begrenzen, indem sie selten Kooperationspartner angriffen. Untergeordnete Angreifer kämpften kürzer und weniger intensiv, riskierten jedoch höhere Sozialkosten, die sie anschließend durch Versöhnungsmechanismen wieder zu verringern versuchten. Beide Strategien resultierten in einem positiven Profit für den Angreifer. Mit dem erweiterten Relational Model kann die gesamte Komplexität von Konflikten zwischen Taï Schimpansen beschrieben werden. Es erlaubt eine größere Flexibilität im Vergleich zur ursprünglichen Version des Models. Das Post-conflict Management sozial lebender Tiere kann dazu eingesetzt werden, Kosten zu reduzieren, die am Ende des Konfliktes bestehen. Dazu werden eine Vielzahl von Verhaltensweisen angewandt, so z.B. Versöhnung (reconciliation), Trost (consolation) oder Weiterleitung von Aggression (redirected aggression). Jede dieser Interaktionen, die erst nach dem Konflikt initiiert werden (PCI = post-conflict interaction), bietet unterschiedliche Vor- und Nachteile, die gelegentlich überlappen. Um den bestmöglichen Vorteil aus einer Konfliktsituation zu ziehen, können Individuen unter verschiedenen PCIs wählen. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersuchte, welche Konfliktsituation bei Taï Schimpansen zu welchen PCIs führten, und überprüfte, ob die Vor- und Nachteilen der ausgewählten PCI mit den Bedürfnissen zur Kostenbegrenzung der Konfliktpartner übereinstimmte (Wittig & Boesch, in press). Ehemalige Gegner versöhnten sich nach Konflikten, wenn ihre Beziehung wertvoll für sie war, und wenn eine Annäherung aneinander nur unwahrscheinlich zu erneuter Aggression geführt hätte. Das Trösten durch Dritte schien manchmal die Versöhnung zu ersetzen. Trost wurde von Dritten angeboten, wenn zwischen ehemaligen Gegnern keine wertvolle Beziehung bestand oder eine Annäherung der Gegner vermutlich wieder zu Aggression geführt hätte. Taï Schimpansen nahmen einen Konflikt wieder auf, wenn die vorherige Auseinandersetzung unentschieden war oder einen unerwarteten Verlierer aufwies. Nach lang anhaltenden Konflikten, oder wenn es wahrscheinlich ausging, daß friedliche PCIs fehlschlagen würden, leiteten Taï Schimpansen die Aggression häufig an Unbeteiligte weiter. Im Gegensatz dazu verhielten sich Taï Schimpansen nach kurzen Konflikten so, weiter als wäre nichts geschehen, und verweigerten jede Art von Interaktion (keine PCI), wenn die betreffende Ressource nicht an Ort oder Zeit gebunden war. Taï Schimpansen schienen Vor- und Nachteile klar gegeneinander abzuwägen, um die geeignetste PCI (Strategie) auszuwählen. Insgesamt scheint Versöhnung die einzige PCI zu sein, mit der es möglich ist, die aggressionsbedingte Störung einer Beziehung zu beseitigen, d.h. eine Beziehung zu reparieren. Obwohl der Nutzen von Versöhnungen allgemein anerkannt ist, war annähernd keine Kenntnis darüber vorhanden, wie ehemalige Gegner eine solche Reparatur durchführen. Frühere Studien gaben Anhaltspunkte über unterschiedliche Längen, Latenzen und Verhaltensweisen von Versöhnungen innerhalb einer Art. Die Gründe für die Variabilität im Versöhnungsverhalten waren jedoch weitgehend unbekannt. Aus diesem Grund untersuchte ich besonders das Versöhnungsverhalten der Taï Schimpansen (Wittig & Boesch, in review). Die Daten bestätigten, daß die Versöhnung eine Beziehung reparieren kann. Aggression störte die Toleranz zwischen den Gegnern, Versöhnung normalisierte diese wieder. Ehemalige Gegner mit wertvollen Beziehungen versöhnten sich häufiger als Partner mit weniger wertvollen Beziehungen. Die Latenz und Dauer der Versöhnung verändern sich in Abhängigkeit voneinander, da kurze Versöhnungen schnell nach einem Konflikt erfolgten. Lange Versöhnungen hingegen dauerten auch lange, bis sie zustande kamen. Hinzu kam, daß Taï Schimpansen eine lange Latenz wählten, wenn ein erneutes Aufflammen der Aggression wahrscheinlich erschien, aber nur kurze Zeit in die Versöhnung investierten, wenn die Zeit anderweitig vorteilhafter genutzt werden konnte. Dahingegen war die Komplexität der Versöhnung abhängig von der Stärke des Konfliktes. Je härter zuvor der Kampf geführt wurde, desto komplexer war di / Besides many advantages, social living also holds several disadvantages. Social partners compete for the same resources or seek contrary goals. When facing such conflicts of interest, competitors go through a decision-making process of whether or not to fight over a resource. However aggressive interactions, which I will refer to here as conflicts, incur costs, which can be separated into costs of aggression (increased risk of injury, higher energy usage) and social costs. Social costs are created by the consequences for the social life, such as the disturbance of cooperative relationships or stress. Conflict management should diminish the costs of conflicts by avoiding escalation to aggression, regulating the intensity of the escalation or dealing with the social consequences (e.g. relationship disturbance or social stress) of the conflict. Thus conflict management can be used before (pre-conflict management), during (peri-conflict management) and after the conflict (post-conflict management). The underlying hypothesis for optimal conflict management is that the benefits prevail over the costs, meanwhile the net-benefit is maximised. I investigated the conflict management of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in the Taï National Park, Côte d’Ivoire, West Africa. Of the 1071 conflicts observed during full-day focal animal follows of adults (4 males, 11 females), I analysed 876 dyadic conflicts among adult chimpanzees of both sex. Multivariate analysis was carried out to detect the variables that influence the decision-making process, while dyadic statistics were usually conducted for mono-factorial testing. Dominance relationships can regulate access to resources and thus help to avoid aggression (pre-conflict management). Although linear hierarchies are commonly found among male chimpanzees, they are believed to be absent among females. However, I detected a formal linear dominance hierarchy among the Taï females based on greeting behaviour directed from the subordinate to the dominant female. Females faced contest competition over food, which increased when either the food was monopolisable or the number of competitors increased. Dominant females usually possessed the food after the conflict. Winning contests over food, but not age, was related to the dominance rank. Affiliative relationships among the females did not help to explain the absence of greetings in some dyads. However post hoc comparison among chimpanzee populations made differences in food competition, predation risk and observation time apparent, which may explain the difference in dominance relationships. I also examined the decision-making process of whether or not to initiate aggression and how strong to fight. An extended version of the Relational Model (de Waal, 1996a) was developed to describe the dynamics of the decision-making process in Taï chimpanzees, such that the net-benefit determines the occurrence of conflicts. Both sexes fought more frequently for the resources that were most important to them: food for females and social contexts for males. Individuals used two different strategies according to their likelihood of winning the aggressive interaction, which was determined by the dominance relationship of the conflict partners. Dominant initiators had longer and more intense aggressive interactions, but they limited their social disadvantages by fighting non-cooperative partners. Subordinate initiators had shorter and less intense aggressive interactions, but risked more social costs, which they could reduce afterwards by reconciliation. Both strategies included a positive overall net-benefit. The extended Relational Model fits the complexity of wild chimpanzee conflicts and allows for more flexibility in the decision-making process compared to the original model. Post-conflict management in social living animals can reduce costs that remain after aggressive interactions by means of a variety of interactions implemented after aggression (e.g. reconciliation, consolation, redirected aggression). Each post-conflict interaction (PCI) provides different advantages and disadvantages, although the functions may sometimes overlap. Individuals can therefore choose a PCI to achieve the most favourable outcome within a given conflict situation. I investigated which conflict-condition led to which type of PCI and related the choice of PCI to its advantages and disadvantages. Taï chimpanzees used reconciliation to resolve conflicts among high value partners and when approaching the former opponent was unlikely to entail further aggression. Consolation seemed to substitute for reconciliation, when opponents were low value partners or approaching the former opponent was too risky, such as when further aggression was likely. Taï chimpanzees renewed aggression after undecided conflicts and when losers were unexpected. They used redirected aggression after long conflicts, possibly because friendly PCIs were likely to fail. However, Taï chimpanzees continued with business as usual when conflicts were very short, and they avoided further interactions when the accessibility of the resource was unlimited. Taï chimpanzees appeared to follow a clear-cut evaluation process as they seemed to weigh advantages against disadvantages for the appropriate choice of PCI. However reconciliation appears to be the only PCI that is able to repair the relationships of former opponents after being disturbed by aggressive interactions. Despite a consensus about the benefits of reconciliation, it remains unclear how former opponents achieve these benefits. Variation within reconciliation is evident in many species, but understanding what causes the variation has been mostly neglected until now. Therefore I investigated how Taï chimpanzees reconciled. This study provides evidence for the repair function of reconciliation, since aggression disturbed tolerance levels among former opponents and reconciliation restored tolerance to normal levels again. Partners with highly beneficial relationships reconciled more often compared with partners of low mutual benefit. Latency and duration of reconciliation varied in combination, such that short reconciliations were initiated soon after the conflict, while long reconciliations were initiated later. Latency increased with the risk of further aggression, while duration decreased when costs were incurred from interruption of beneficial activities. In contrast, the complexity of reconciliation varied according to the intensity of the preceding conflict, such that reconciliation was more complex after more intense conflicts. My results suggest that relationships between opponents are increasingly disturbed with increasing conflict intensity and reconciliation repairs all relationships independent of their relationship value. I propose that the function of reconciliation is to reduce the disturbance created by aggression, but that reconciliation occurs more frequently the more beneficial it is for former opponents. Taï chimpanzees engaged in conflict management before, during and after the conflict. The decision-making process of Taï chimpanzees is based on economic rules in terms of costs and benefits. Conflict management provides Taï chimpanzees with a tool to minimise the disadvantages of group-living.

The last two decades have seen a surge in published research on primate personality. This surge contrasts with the paucity of research over the preceding century. People interested in primate personality research come from a broad range of fields, but they are all interested in measuring primate personality in a way that is reliable, valid, and practical. This dissertation aims to describe the development and evaluation of the construct validity of a new rating scale in chimpanzees. The scale is based on a bottom-up approach to scale development and was developed using steps from both Uher (2008a,b) and Gosling (1998). As described in Chapter 3, the scale was evaluated by using it to rate 143 chimpanzees at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center Facility in Bastrop, TX. Twenty-one people who have worked with the chimpanzees between 6 months to 20 years rated the chimpanzees. Chapter 4 describes how inter-class correlation coefficients (ICCs) were used to calculate the reliability of the items on the scale. There was only one item (predictable) that turned out to not be reliable. The other 40 items were included in subsequent analyses. An exploratory factor analysis, as described in Chapter 5, was performed in order to determine the structure underlying the scale. Five methods were used to determine that a six-factor solution fit the data best. The six factors were labeled Reactivity, Dominance, Openness, Extroversion Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness based on the degree to that they correlated with other previous chimpanzees scales that used those labels. The convergent and discriminant validity of the factors was evaluated, as described in Chapter 6, by looking at the predicted relationships between each of the six factors and the variables of sex, age, rearing history, behavior in reaction to a novel stimulus, general behavior, injuries, illnesses, blood chemistry, and cortisol. The results indicate that there is a lack of evidence for convergent validity, but some evidence for discriminant validity of the new chimpanzee rating scale. The discussion in Chapter 7 focuses on the findings from the study as well as strengths and limitations of the new chimpanzee rating scale. / text