Thesis (M.S.)--Brigham Young University. Dept of Plant and Wildlife Sciences, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Montana, 2006. / Title from PDF t.p. (viewed on July 2, 2007). Includes bibliographical references.

We present an efficient and effective method for trapping chukars (Alectoris chukar) on artificial water sources. We compared a B-trap, a prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupido) walk-in trap, a modified quail recall trap, and a newly designed Utah walk-in-funnel trap. Our Utah funnel trap outperformed standard techniques by more than 65%, and exceeded previous published results by 35%. Use of this method allows researchers and managers the ability to capture large numbers of Chukars relatively efficiently. With appropriate modifications this design is applicable for capturing a variety of bird species using small water developments. Chukars (Alectoris chukar) have been introduced throughout the world. Limited information regarding seasonal survival, causes of mortality, and other basic life history characteristics such as movements, home range, nesting and brood ecology, are available throughout their historical and introduced range of distribution. Lack of information is surprising because chukars have been introduced throughout the world and are popular with sport hunters. Survival estimates are particularly important for understanding population fluctuations which allows for adequate management. We evaluated the relationship of fall raptor migration, peak migration, reproductive period, and year effects on survival of chukars at 5 sites in western Utah. We also evaluated the probable cause of death for chukars with transmitters attached by examining evidence at kill sites. We captured and fitted 128 chukars with two different sized radio transmitters (99 females, 21 males, 8 sexes undetermined). Survival differed among study years where survival estimates showed significant (P< 0.01) differences between estimates in 2005 (Ψ = 0.03, 95% CI = 0.01 - 0.09), compared to 2006 (Ψ = 0.26, 95% CI = 0.18 - 0.38). Estimates showed that chukars were less likely to survive (P = 0.01) during the fall peak of raptor migration in 2006 (bi-monthly Ψ = 0.86, 95% CI = 0.74 - 0.93) than (base survival) outside this migration period and during the chukar reproductive period (bi-monthly Ψ = 0.97, 95% CI = 0.95 - 0.98). We documented 95 deaths; with 45% of causes unknown, avian predation accounted for 30%, mammals killed 1%, and hunters accounted for 7.6%. Our research suggested that predation on chukars was substantial during the fall raptor migratory period.

Free water can be a limiting factor to wildlife in arid regions of the world. In the western United States, management agencies have installed numerous, expensive wildlife water developments (e.g. catchments, guzzlers, wells) to: 1) increase the distribution or density of target species, 2) influence animal movements, and 3) mitigate for the loss of available free water. Despite over 50 years as an active management practice, water developments have become controversial for several species. We lack an integrated understanding of the ways free water influences animal populations. In particular, we have not meshed understanding of evolutionary adaptations that reduce the need for free water and behavioral constraints that may limit use of otherwise available free water with management practices. I propose a conceptual framework for understanding more generally how, when, and where wildlife water developments are likely to benefit wildlife species. I argue that the following five elements are fundamental to an integrated understanding: 1) consideration of the variable nature in time and space of available free water, 2) location and availability of pre-formed and/or metabolic water, 3) seasonal temperature and precipitation patterns that influence the physiological need for water, 4) behavioral constraints that limit use of otherwise available free water, and 5) proper spacing of water sources for target species. I developed this framework from work done primarily with chukars (Alectoris chukar). I also report supporting evidence from research with mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). Chukars demonstrated a spatial response to available free water when estimates of dietary moisture content were < 40%. Mule deer photo counts were reduced at water sources with small-perimeter fencing, suggesting increased predation risk caused mule deer to behaviorally avoid use of otherwise available free water. When all five framework elements are considered, I found strong evidence that wildlife water developments have benefited some chukar populations. Historic chukar counts suggested a population benefit following installation of wildlife water developments. Experimental removal of access to free water caused increased movements and decreased survival of adult chukars.

This thesis presents three separate manuscripts in chapter format dealing with the ecology of Chukars (Alectoris chukar) in western North America. All three manuscripts have been formatted for publication in professional journals. Chapter one confirms discovery of ingested lead pellets in Chukars across a broad region of western Utah including all four western counties sampled. Prevalence rates were 1.9% (n=105) for crops and 10.7% (n=75) of gizzards showing no evidence of penetration wounds. Ingestion is likely related to grit size preferences that are consistent with common shot sizes. The second chapter describes watering patterns and water-site selection of Chukars. Chukars watered during daylight hours with a modal hour from 1100 hours to 1200hours. Annual patterns suggest no use of water sources from November to May with first visits occurring in June of each year and last visits in October. Shrub canopy cover was the only variable to discriminate between use and non-use watering sources (P < 0.01). Cross validation showed a predictive success rate of 84%. Significant differences were found between use and non-use sites in terms of protective cover (P < 0.01), but not total cover (P > 0.05). Chukars were found to have a shrub canopy threshold near 11%; water sources meeting this threshold received use, whereas those not meeting this threshold did not. Chapter three challenges several claims postulating negative conservation implications relative to exotic Chukars in North America. These claims were proven to be unfounded with no evidence of cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) dispersal despite widespread utilization. Furthermore, guzzlers designed to benefit Chukar populations were heavily utilized by native species and only slightly (two species at three sites) by other exotics. These three manuscripts illuminate several areas of Chukar ecology and represent a significant advancement in our understanding of this bird and its management.

Naturalists for many years have known that birds sing most at dawn and at dusk, but to which of many physical variables they are responding has not been completely determined. This problem has taken on importance in the field of wildlife management because calling rate has been used as an index of abundance for numerous game birds, namely the Pheasant, Phasianus colchicus( Kimball, 1949); the Mourning Dove, Zenaidura macroura (McClure, 1939); the Bobwhite Quail, Colinus virginianus (Bennitt, 1951; Rosene, 1957): and the Woodcock, Philohela minor (Pitelka, 1943). Of the possible variables which can influence calling in birds, light intensity has received the most attention. Haecker (1916), using a crude optical light meter, found a definite and high correlation between time of beginning morning song and light intensity. In 1924 he published findings with the same conclusion after measuring light intensity photometrically. Dorno (1924), in repeating part of Haecker's work, came to the conclusion that light was significant, but that the variation in the time of beginning morning song; and sunrise was due to differences in dispersal of light rays rather than actual light intensity. This dispersal was due, in his opinion, to latitude and season of the year. Since that time many workers have been concerned with the problem . The first American to deal with light intensity as the factor that governs time of morning calling was Craig (1926). He found a close correlation between early morning song of the Eastern Wood Pewee ( Contopus virens) and the curve of civil twilight. Walker (1928) found that the length of time before sunrise a bird sings is probably dependent on the total amount of light present, but that weather factors influence song to a great extent. In agreement with these findings were those of Lutz (1931) studying singing in the House Wren (Troglodytes musculus). He found that one individual began to sing at almost the same time on each of 24 mornings. If the morning was bright, song came earlier; if couldy, it came later, but time never varies more than 15 minutes. Wiens (1960) stated that the song of the Cardinal (Richmondena cardinalis) was closely associated with sunrise during April. He recorded calls beginning 10 minutes )plus or minus 3 minutes) before sunrise during this month. Eynon (1960), in compiling field notes of the late Aldo Leopold, showed that the first morning songs of several passerine and game birds are closely associated with very low light intensities that occur during the twilight before sunrise. Studies showing effect of light intensity on animal activity are not limited to birds. Alexander and Moore (1958), studying singing in two species of Cicada (insects), found that both are sensitive to changes in light intensity. Singing increased as the sun came up and decreased as the sun passed behind a cloud. They attempted to stimulate singing with taped song under cloudy conditions, but only one species responded.Steven (1959) showed that schools of fish occurring during daylight hours break up as light falls below 0.1 foot-candle. He stated that there was no sudden change from day to night behavior patters at an level of light; the change was progressive. Other factors which have been shown to affect time and rate of bird calling are temperature, wind, and rain. Groebbels (1925) believed that early morning singing was a direct response to prevailing low temperatures. This study measure the composite and individual effects of time of day, season, light intensity, wind, rain, and temperature on calling. An attempt was made to apply correction factors to make possible more standardized calling counts. Observations were made on penned Chukars to relate sex and social organization to rally calling.

The importance of surface water to chukar partridges (Alectoris graeca) and the feasibility of rain-catchment devices for improving chukar habitat were studied on the Thomas and Dugway Mountain Ranges in western Utah during 1969 and 1970. Sources of surface water were removed from one mountain rang~ and chukar populations on that range were compared with populations on an adjacent range with permanent sources of water. Providing drinking water did not improve chukar productivity, survival, or availability to hunters. Although most birds concentrated around water supplies in the summer, some chukars appeared to live completely independent of any permanent sources of surface water. Food habits of chukars near water did not differ from those in waterless areas. It was concluded that in habitats comparable to those studied, installation of rain-catchment devices is not a feasible technique for improving chukar habitat.

Lead ingestion adversely affects humans and over 130 species of wildlife. Wild chukars (Alectoris chukar) are documented to ingest lead, but the causes and consequences of this ingestion are poorly understood. The objectives of this research were to 1) examine the influence of habitat use, the hunting season, and seasonal climate on the extent and severity of lead ingestion by chukars in western Utah, 2) assess the effects of habitat use, feeding behaviors, and lead density on the causes of lead-pellet ingestion in captive and wild chukars, and 3) investigate the consequences of lead-pellet ingestion in captive chukars as a function of lead weathering, diet, and wild onion (Allium spp.) supplementation. I documented that 11.5% (n=54) of my sample of wild-harvested chukars contained an ingested lead pellet or increased liver lead (≥ 0.5 ppm). In conjunction with data from captive chukars dosed with lead, I was able to differentiate between bone-lead concentrations resulting from chronic or acute exposure to lead. I documented individuals from seven different mountain ranges with an ingested lead pellet or increased liver lead. I recorded 19 instances of ingested lead during June-October (n=221) and 20 during November-January (n=193). I observed 14 events of increased liver lead for June-October (n=97), but did not find a single occurrence during November-January (n=24). The frequency of lead-pellet ingestion by captive chukars increased significantly when given a greater density of lead pellets with food and when fed a diet with seeds and grit pebbles that were similar visually to lead pellets. I estimated a density of 1,712,134 pellets/Ha in soils at an area used for target shooting. I found significantly more lead pellets in soils near springs than near guzzlers or reference points. I calculated that as many as 58,600 pellets/Ha may be present in soils near springs, and up to 2,445 pellets/Ha in soils surrounding guzzlers and reference points. One #6 lead pellet was able to induce morbidity and mortality in captive chukars. A mixed-seed diet and lead weathering exacerbated the effects of lead ingestion, whereas wild onion supplementation alleviated them.